THE MAROONBOOK

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO MANUAL OF LEGAL CITATION

The University of Chicago Law Review

2022

Volume 90

Edited by

Annie Kors, Virginia Robinson

Logan Kirkpatrick, Narayan Narasimhan, Mario Ramirez, Tahnee Thantrong Monnin

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Table of Contents 
Rule 1: Structure and Use of Citations ....................................................................................................... 1 
1.1 Citation Sentences and Clauses in Law Reviews .................................................................... 1 
1.2 Signals ........................................................................................................................................ 1 
1.3 Parenthetical Information ........................................................................................................ 3 
1.4 Related Authority ...................................................................................................................... 4 
Rule 2: Typefaces for Law Reviews ............................................................................................................ 5 
2.1 Typeface Conventions for Citations ....................................................................................... 5 
2.2 Typeface Conventions for Textual Material ........................................................................... 6 
Rule 3: Subdivisions ..................................................................................................................................... 8 
3.1 Volumes, Parts, and Supplements ........................................................................................... 8 
3.2 Pages, Footnotes, Endnotes, and Graphical Materials .......................................................... 9 
3.3 Sections and Paragraphs ......................................................................................................... 10 
3.4 Appended Material ................................................................................................................. 10 
3.5 Internal Cross-References ...................................................................................................... 10 
Rule 4: Short Citation Forms..................................................................................................................... 12 
4.1 “Id.” .......................................................................................................................................... 12 
4.2 “Supra” and “Hereinafter” ...................................................................................................... 13 
Rule 5: Quotations...................................................................................................................................... 14 
5.1 Formatting of Quotations ...................................................................................................... 14 
5.2 Alterations and Quotations Within Quotations ................................................................... 14 
Rule 6: Abbreviations, Numerals, and Symbols ....................................................................................... 17 
6.1 Abbreviations .......................................................................................................................... 17 
6.2 Numerals and Symbols........................................................................................................... 18 
Rule 7: Italicizing for Style and in Unique Circumstances ...................................................................... 20 
Rule 8: Capitalization ................................................................................................................................. 21 
Rule 9: Titles of Judges, Officials, and Terms of Court .......................................................................... 23 
Rule 10: Cases ............................................................................................................................................. 25 
10.1 Basic Citation Form ............................................................................................................. 25 
10.2 Case Names ........................................................................................................................... 27 
10.3 Reporters and Other Sources .............................................................................................. 30 
10.4 Court and Jurisdiction .......................................................................................................... 31 
10.5 Date or Year .......................................................................................................................... 32 
10.6 Parenthetical Information Regarding Cases ....................................................................... 33 
10.7 Prior and Subsequent History ............................................................................................. 34 
10.8 Special Citation Forms ......................................................................................................... 36 
10.9 Short Forms for Cases ......................................................................................................... 38 
Rule 11: Constitutions ................................................................................................................................ 40 

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Rule 12: Statutes ......................................................................................................................................... 41 
1 Basic Citation Form ............................................................................................................. 41 
2 Choosing the Proper Citation Form ................................................................................... 42 
3 Current Official and Unofficial Codes ................................................................................ 43 
4 Session Laws ......................................................................................................................... 45 
5 Electronic Media and Online Sources ................................................................................ 46 
6 Other Secondary Sources ..................................................................................................... 47 
8 Explanatory Parenthetical Phrases ...................................................................................... 48 
9 Special Citation Forms ......................................................................................................... 48 
10 Short Forms for Statutes ................................................................................................... 51 
Rule 13: Legislative Materials .................................................................................................................... 52 
1 Basic Citation Form ............................................................................................................. 52 
2 Bills and Resolutions ............................................................................................................ 53 
3 Hearings ................................................................................................................................ 54 
4 Reports, Documents, and Committee Prints ..................................................................... 54 
5 Debates .................................................................................................................................. 56 
7 Electronic Media and Online Sources ................................................................................ 56 
8 Short Forms for Legislative Materials ................................................................................. 56 
9 Common Abbreviations ...................................................................................................... 57 
Rule 14: Administrative and Executive Materials .................................................................................... 59 
1 Basic Citation Form ............................................................................................................. 59 
2 Rules, Regulations, and Other Publications ....................................................................... 59 
3 Administrative Adjudications and Arbitrations ................................................................. 60 
4 Commercial Electronic Databases ...................................................................................... 61 
5 Short Forms for Regulations ............................................................................................... 61 
Rule 15: Books, Reports, and Other Nonperiodic Materials .................................................................. 62 
1 Author ................................................................................................................................... 62 
2 Editor or Translator ............................................................................................................. 63 
3 Title ........................................................................................................................................ 63 
4 Edition, Publisher, and Date ............................................................................................... 64 
5 Shorter Works in Collection ................................................................................................ 66 
6 Prefaces, Forwards, Introductions, and Epilogues ............................................................ 66 
7 Serial Number ....................................................................................................................... 67 
8 Special Citation Forms ......................................................................................................... 67 
9 Electronic Media and Online Sources ................................................................................ 68 
10 Short Citation Forms ......................................................................................................... 69 
Rule 16: Periodic Materials ........................................................................................................................ 70 
1 Basic Citation Forms ............................................................................................................ 70 
2 Author ................................................................................................................................... 70 
3 Title ........................................................................................................................................ 70 
4 Consecutively Paginated Journals........................................................................................ 70 
5 Nonconsecutively Paginated Journals and Magazines ....................................................... 71 
6 Newspapers ........................................................................................................................... 71 

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7 Special Citation Forms ......................................................................................................... 71 
7.1 Student-written law review materials .................................................................. 71 
7.2 Non-student-written book reviews ..................................................................... 71 
7.3 Symposia and colloquia ....................................................................................... 72 
7.4 Commentaries and other special designations ................................................... 72 
7.5 Multipart articles................................................................................................... 72 
7.6 Annotations .......................................................................................................... 72 
7.8 Newsletters and other noncommercially distributed periodicals ...................... 72 
8 Electronic Media and Online Sources ................................................................................ 72 
9 Short Citation Forms............................................................................................................ 73 
Rule 17: Unpublished and Forthcoming Sources .................................................................................... 74 
1 Basic Citation Form ............................................................................................................. 74 
2 Unpublished Materials ......................................................................................................... 74 
3 Forthcoming Publications.................................................................................................... 75 
4 Working Papers .................................................................................................................... 75 
5 Electronic Media and Online Sources ................................................................................ 75 
6 Short Citation Forms............................................................................................................ 75 
Rule 18: The Internet, Electronic Media, and Other Nonprint Resources ..................................................... 77 
1 Basic Citation Forms ............................................................................................................ 77 
2 The Internet .......................................................................................................................... 77 
3 Commercial Electronic Databases ...................................................................................... 78 
4 Films, Broadcasts, and Noncommercial Video Materials ................................................. 78 
5 Audio Recordings ................................................................................................................. 79 
6 Photographs and Illustrations ............................................................................................. 79 
7 Short Citation Forms............................................................................................................ 79 
Rule 19: Services ......................................................................................................................................... 80 
1 Citation Form for Services................................................................................................... 80 
2 Short Citation Forms............................................................................................................ 80 
Rule 20: Foreign Materials ......................................................................................................................... 81 
1 Jurisdiction ............................................................................................................................ 81 
2 Non-English-Language Documents ................................................................................... 81 
3 Cases ...................................................................................................................................... 81 
4 Constitutions ......................................................................................................................... 82 
5 Statutes .................................................................................................................................. 82 
6 Non-English-Language and Foreign Periodicals ............................................................... 82 
7 Short Citation Forms............................................................................................................ 82 
Rule 21: International Materials ................................................................................................................ 83 
1 Basic Citation Forms ............................................................................................................ 83 
2 Non-English-Language Documents ................................................................................... 83 
3 Jurisdiction Not Evident from Context .............................................................................. 83 
4 Treaties and Other International Agreements ................................................................... 83 
5 International Law Cases ....................................................................................................... 84 
5.1 The [Permanent] International Court of Justice ................................................ 84 

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21.5.2 European Union Courts ...................................................................................... 84 
21.5.3 European Court of Human Rights ..................................................................... 84 
21.5.4 Inter-American Commission on Human Rights ............................................... 85 
21.5.5 Inter-American Court of Human Rights ............................................................ 85 
21.5.6 International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea ................................................... 85 
21.5.7 International Criminal Court and Similar Tribunals.......................................... 85 
21.5.8 Other International Courts .................................................................................. 85 
21.5.9 International Cases in National Courts .............................................................. 85 
21.6 International Arbitrations and Claim Commissions .......................................................... 85 
21.7 United Nations Sources ....................................................................................................... 86 
21.8 League of Nations ................................................................................................................ 86 
21.9 European Union ................................................................................................................... 86 
21.10 Council of Europe .............................................................................................................. 86 
21.11 World Trade Organization ................................................................................................ 87 
21.12 International Monetary Fund ............................................................................................ 87 
21.13 Other Intergovernmental Organizations .......................................................................... 87 
21.14 International Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) ............................................... 87 
21.15 Yearbooks ........................................................................................................................... 87 
21.16 Digests ................................................................................................................................. 87 
21.17 Short Citation Forms ......................................................................................................... 87 
Appendix 1: General Rules of Style and Punctuation ............................................................................. 88 
Nonbreaking Spaces...................................................................................................................... 88 
Commas ......................................................................................................................................... 88 
Dashes ............................................................................................................................................ 89 
Parentheses .................................................................................................................................... 90 
Other Rules of Style ...................................................................................................................... 91 
Appendix 2: Section Headings .................................................................................................................. 93 
Appendix 3: Tables..................................................................................................................................... 94 
Table 6 – Case Names and Institutional Authors in Citations .................................................. 94 
Table 7 – Courts .......................................................................................................................... 100 
Table 10 – Geographical Terms ................................................................................................. 103 
Table 10.1 – U.S. States, Cities, and Territories ........................................................... 103 
States .................................................................................................................. 103 
Cities ................................................................................................................... 104 
Territories .......................................................................................................... 104 
Table 10.2 – Australian States and Canadian Provinces ............................................. 105 
Australian States ................................................................................................ 105 
Canadian Provinces ........................................................................................... 105 
Table 10.3 – Countries and Regions ............................................................................. 105 
Table 12 – Months ...................................................................................................................... 110 
Table 16 – Subdivisions .............................................................................................................. 110

Rule 1: Structure and Use of Citations

1.1 Citation Sentences and Clauses in Law Reviews

(a)

All citations in footnotes

Citations to authorities should appear only in footnotes. When a proposition within a footnote

requires a citation, it may take the form of either a citation sentence, which stands on its own, or a

citation clause, which is offset from the footnote text by commas. A citation clause may or may not

be grammatically part of the text.

(b)

Footnote call numbers

Place a footnote call number at the end of a sentence if the citation supports—or contradicts—the

entire sentence. Otherwise, footnote calls should appear at the end of the part of a sentence that a

citation supports or contradicts.

The Supreme Court has held that the citing of authorities should occur only in

footnotes1—a decision that was later codified by the 2011 Act for Accurate Citations.2

Han v. Stanton, 531 U.S. 98, 110 (2000).

2 Pub. L. No. 11-253, 112 Stat. 1425 (codified at 1 U.S.C. §§ 305–369). Call

Numbers normally follow any punctuation but precede dashes and colons.

1.2 Signals

This rule covers Rule 1.2, Rule 1.3, and Rule 1.4 of The Bluebook.

Signals explain the force or purpose of a cited authority. In citation sentences and citation

clauses, signals are italicized. Rule 2.1 provides instructions on italicizing signal punctuation

(note that the space between a signal and the cited authority should never be italicized, even

when the following word is italicized, and that punctuation within a signal—for example, the

comma in See, e.g.—are italicized but the commas after a signal are never italicized).

Use no signal only when the cited authority (i) directly supports the text or states the proposition,

(ii) identifies the source of a quotation, or (iii) identifies a source discussed in the text.

In all other cases, introduce authorities using a signal.

When a signal contains multiple cited authorities, cite the most important first. If all are of equal

importance, cite in reverse chronological order.

(a)

Types of signals

The following is an exhaustive list of signals. When multiple signals are used in a single citation

sentence, they should be arranged in this order.

(1)

Signals indicating support

[no signal] An authority with no signal should be introduced first.

E.g., Cited authority provides an example of the proposition. Note the

unitalicized comma. This signal may be combined with other signals

(for example, “See, e.g.,” and “But see, e.g.,”).

Accord When the text refers to one source that supports the proposition, but

additional source(s) also support it, those additional sources are

introduced by “accord.”

See Cited authority is described by the citing text or provides indirect but

obvious support for the citing text.

See also Cited authority provides additional support for the citing text beyond

that provided by previous cited authorities.

Cf. Cited authority supports a proposition different from that in the text

but sufficiently analogous to lend support. Note the italicized period.

(2)

Signals suggesting a useful comparison

Compare . . . [, and] . . . , Comparing authorities is illustrative of the

with . . . [, and] . . . . proposition. Note the unitalicized commas.

(3)

Signals indicating contradiction

Contra The opposite of “[no signal]”—cited authority directly states the

contrary of the proposition.

But see The opposite of “see”—cited authority indirectly but obviously

contradicts the citing text.

But cf. Cited authority supports a proposition analogous to the contrary of the

main proposition. Note the italicized period.

When a signal containing “but” follows another contradictory signal, omit “but.”

(4)

Signals indicating background material

See generally The proposition is too broad to allow for citation to a specific

page or range of pages. Use sparingly, as pincites are generally

preferred.

(b)

Punctuation of citation sentences

Multiple authorities following a signal are separated by semicolons. Signals of the same type (like see

and cf., which both indicate support) are separated by semicolons. Signals of different types are

separated by a period.

See X; see also Y. But see Z. See generally A; B; C.

(c)

Signals as verbs

When a signal is the verb of a sentence, unitalicize it. When doing so, use “for example” instead of

“e.g.,” and use “compare” instead of “cf.”

For empirical work on people’s reasonable expectations of privacy, see, for example,

Matthew B. Kugler & Lior Jacob Strahilevitz, The Myth of Fourth Amendment Circularity,

84 U. CHI. L. REV. 1747, 1776–94 (2017).

1.3 Parenthetical Information

(a)

Explanatory parentheticals are good

Additional information (presented in parentheses) should be provided if it helps explain the force or

meaning of the authority or if the authority makes a point different from that in the text. Do not

merely paraphrase the proposition presented in the text.

(b)

Grammar and punctuation in explanatory parentheticals

Explanatory parentheticals that quote the authority in one or more full sentences should begin with

a capital letter and end with a period.

Lawner v. Engelbach, 249 A.2d 295, 297 (Pa. 1969) (“[W]hile we are bound by the trial

court’s findings of fact, we are not bound by its legal conclusions.”).

Otherwise, explanatory parentheticals should generally begin with a lowercase present participle (for

example, “concluding,” “holding,” or “finding”). In these parentheticals, do not omit words like “the,”

“a,” and “that.”

Lawner v. Engelbach, 249 A.2d 295, 297 (Pa. 1969) (reversing the judgment against a

diamond merchant for conversion of a diamond ring).

Not: Lawner v. Engelbach, 249 A.2d 295, 297 (Pa. 1969) (reversing judgment

against diamond merchant for conversion of diamond ring).

The explanatory parenthetical “(same)” may be used when the parenthetical’s content would be identical to

that of an explanatory parenthetical in the immediately preceding source.

Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife, 504 U.S. 555, 578 (1992) (finding that the plaintiffs lacked

standing to sue); Sierra Club v. Morton, 405 U.S. 727, 741 (1972) (same).

Short explanatory parentheticals may be used in an “e.g.” citation to explain the example.

Many Justices write majority opinions. See generally, e.g., Massachusetts v. EPA, 549 U.S. 497

(2007) (Stevens); Summers v. Earth Island Inst., 555 U.S. 488 (2009) (Scalia); Fed. Election

Comm'n v. Akins, 524 U.S. 11 (1998) (Breyer).

(c)

Other kinds of parentheticals

The rules suggest or require a number of different kinds of parenthetical information throughout.

Requirements vary depending on the type of authority cited.

(d)

Order of multiple parentheticals

Parentheticals should be presented in the following order after a citation:

(date) [hereinafter short name] (en banc) (Lastname, J., concurring) (plurality opinion) (per

curiam) (alteration in original) (emphasis added) (quotation marks/alterations/citations

omitted) (quoting another source) (citing another source), https://perma.cc/[URL]

(explanatory parenthetical), prior or subsequent history.

If an explanatory parenthetical requires an additional explanation (for example, when quoted material

in a parenthetical has been altered), nest an explanatory parenthetical within the original parenthetical

under Rule 10.6.

1.4 Related Authority

(a)

Authority included in another source

Append the italicized phrase “in” (after an unitalicized comma) to indicate that an authority is

collected or included in whole within another source.

Mark Tushnet, Corporations and Free Speech, in THE POLITICS OF LAW 253, 256 (David

Kairys ed., 1982).

Use “reprinted in” when the authority was originally published elsewhere.

Use “as reprinted in” when the authority is only excerpted or partially reprinted.

Other descriptive phrases, such as “excerpted in,” “translated in,” or “reviewed by,” should be used

only when particularly relevant.

(b)

Prior and subsequent history

Refer to Rule 10.7 (Cases) and Rule 12.2 (Statutes) for when to append an authority’s history.

Rule 2: Typefaces for Law Reviews

(a)

Everything in roman, except as noted

All material should appear in roman type except as otherwise specified below. Roman text is

plain text—no underlining, italicization, bolding, or special capitalization.

Two types of nonroman type may be used: italics, which appear in citations and textual material

(including citation clauses in footnote text), and SMALL CAPS, which appear only in citations.

(b)

Underlines, not italics, when editing

When editing a manuscript, the material discussed below should be underlined, not italicized.

The underlining is changed to italics during the publishing process.

(c)

Punctuation is italicized only when part of italicized material

For example, the periods in “E.g.,” are italicized, but the comma is not.

This means punctuation separating citation elements is never italicized. Punctuation that is part of an

italicized abbreviation should always be italicized—for example, the period in “id.”

2.1 Typeface Conventions for Citations

(a)

Italicization in citations

In citation sentences, the following should be italicized:

(1)

Short form case names

Gideon, 372 U.S. at 338–39.

(2)

Procedural phrases in case names

State ex rel. Scott v. Zinn, 392 P.2d 417 (N.M. 1964).

(3)

Article titles

William H.J. Hubbard, A Fresh Look at Plausibility Pleading, 83 U. CHI. L. REV. 693, 732

(2016).

When an item that should be italicized (such as a case name) is included within an article title, the

former material should not be italicized.

Cass R. Sunstein, Lochner’s Legacy, 87 COLUM. L. REV. 873, 873 (1987).

If a case name was not doubly italicized in the original source’s title, treat it as if it were.

(4)

Signals (though recall that signals used as verbs are unitalicized)

(5)

Explanatory phrases

Goldberg v. Kelly, 397 U.S. 254, 260–75 (1970), as reprinted in STEPHEN G. BREYER, RICHARD

B. STEWART, CASS R. SUNSTEIN, ADRIAN VERMUELE & MICHAEL HERZ, ADMINISTRATIVE

LAW AND REGULATORY POLICY: PROBLEMS, TEXTS, AND CASES 615–20

(8th ed. 2017).

(b)

Small caps in citations

In citation sentences, the following should be in SMALL CAPS:

(1)

Book authors and titles

LAURA WEINRIB, THE TAMING OF FREE SPEECH: AMERICA’S CIVIL LIBERTIES

COMPROMISE (2016).

(2)

Periodical names

Michael W. McConnell & Randal C. Picker, When Cities Go Broke: A Conceptual

Introduction to Municipal Bankruptcy, 60 U. CHI. L. REV. 425, 450–51 (1993).

2.2 Typeface Conventions for Textual Material

(a)

Main text

In the main body of text, the following should be italicized:

(1)

Case names

The status quo persisted until Gideon was handed down in 1963.

(2)

Titles of publications and published works

The library has a copy of The Problem of Social Cost, which was published in the Journal of Law

and Economics; a complete set of the U.S. Reports; and today’s New York Times.

(3)

Uncommon foreign words (refer to Rule 7 for additional details)

The grève du zèle is not a true strike but a nitpicking obeying of work rules.

(4)

Words to be emphasized (refer to Rule 5.2 and Rule 7 for additional details)

Diana really, really wants to finish her Comment before reading period.

(b)

Footnote text

(1)

Cases

When citing cases within footnote text, if the case name is not grammatically part of the

sentence, use the typeface conventions for citations. Otherwise, use the typeface

conventions for main-text materials.

7 In Eldred v. Ashcroft, 537 U.S. 186 (2003), the Court opened the door to finite

extensions of the duration of copyright—no matter their length. Id. at 208.

(2)

All other authorities

When a noncase authority is cited in its full or shortened form in a citation clause, use the

typeface conventions for citations.

(3)

Explanatory parentheticals

Use the typeface conventions for main-text materials—unless full-citing a case, in which case

the typeface convention for citations should be used.

Rule 3: Subdivisions

(a)

Generally

This rule applies to all citations.

The relevant rules for subdivisions can be found in the model citations for each type of authority.

For example, Rule 3.1 states that the volume number is placed before the author’s name when citing

the author of an entire work, but before the volume’s name when citing a single piece in a

multivolume publication. This rule can be inferred from consulting both Rule 15, which discusses

books, and Rule 16, which discusses periodical materials. Therefore, this section lays out in detail

only those rules that cannot be inferred from consulting the model citations of other rules.

In all cases, when confronted with a subdivision, refer to Table 16 in Appendix 3 of this manual to

locate the appropriate abbreviation.

(b)

Always include pincites

Indicate the exact location of supporting statements within an authority, using the page number,

section number, paragraph number, chapter number, note number, or any combination of these. Be

as precise as possible. The only exceptions are “See generally” citations to entire authorities, as well as

drop citations. Do not use “passim.”

In full citations, use “at,” offset by a comma, if (1) the title of a work ends with an Arabic numeral,

(2) the work uses Roman numerals for pagination, or (3) in any other scenario when the page

number may be confused with another part of the citation.

BIOGRAPHICAL DIRECTORY OF THE GOVERNORS OF THE UNITED STATES 1978–1983, at

257 (Robert Sobel & John W. Raimo eds., 1983).

3.1 Volumes, Parts, and Supplements

When citing a work, include the subdivisions into which that work is divided.

Replace Roman numeral volume numbers with Arabic numerals.

When the volume number is a year, the date parenthetical may be omitted. If the volume number

restarts each year, give both the year and the volume number.

Cass R. Sunstein, Minimalism at War, 2004 SUP. CT. REV. 47, 51.

[1943] 2 K.B. 154.

When citing a separately paginated supplement, include a parenthetical with “Supp.” and a date. For

example: “(Supp. 2020).”

3.2 Pages, Footnotes, Endnotes, and Graphical Materials

(a)

Pages

When referencing consecutive page or note numbers, drop all but the last two digits from the last page

in the range unless the previous digit changes.

For example: 340–42, 1105–07, 1199–1200

Not: 1199–200, 1199–00

Separate nonconsecutive page or note numbers with a comma followed by a space.

885 F.2d at 332, 337

Drop star paging from the ending number of consecutive ranges.

Alison L. LaCroix, Federalists, Federalism, and Federal Jurisdiction, 30 L. & HIST. REV. *5–6

(forthcoming Feb. 2012) (on file with author).

Not: *5–*6

If a sentence includes multiple quotes from the same source, pincite to those quotes in the order in

which they appeared in the sentence.

(b)

Pincites to footnotes and endnotes

To cite only a footnote, refer to the page on which the call appears, followed by “n.” (or “nn.” if more

than one) and the footnote number—with no space between “n.” (or “nn.”) and the number.

61 U. CHI. L. REV. 156, 157 n.108 (1994).

61 U. CHI. L. REV. 156, 159–60 nn.7–9 (1994).

When citing a page and a footnote on that page, refer to the page, followed by an ampersand (&), a

space, and a footnote citation. But when citing a page range and a single footnote within that range,

cite normally and separate the cites with a comma.

61 U. CHI. L. REV. at 157 & n.108.

61 U. CHI. L. REV. at 159–60, 159 n.7.

Separate multiple footnotes using the Oxford comma—do not use an ampersand.

Id. at 291 nn.14, 18, 316 nn.4, 6, 8–9.

(c)

Graphical materials

Cite tables, figures, or other graphical materials using the appropriate abbreviation in Table 16 in

Appendix 3 of this manual, followed by the numerical designation, with no space. So “Figure 1”

would be cited as “fig.1.”

3.3 Sections and Paragraphs

When authorities are organized by section (§, or §§ when plural) or paragraph (¶, or ¶¶ when plural),

cite to these subdivisions, with a nonbreaking space between the subdivision symbol and the

number. Do not use the abbreviation “para.”

42 U.S.C. § 1983.

THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE ¶ 2 (U.S. 1776).

Short citation forms using “at” do not apply to section and paragraph divisions.

See, e.g., id. § 4.

Not: Id. at § 4.

Ensure that multiple section symbols are used only when citing multiple sections, and not when citing

multiple subsections within the same section.

28 U.S.C. §§ 1441–1442. But:

28 U.S.C. § 1442(a), (c).

3.4 Appended Material

Place the abbreviation in Table 16 of this manual for any appended material (such as a comment,

abbreviated “cmt.”) after the subdivision containing the material.

RESTATEMENT (SECOND) OF TORTS § 623A cmt. A (AM. LAW INST. 1977).

3.5 Internal Cross-References

Reference authorities and materials cited elsewhere in the document in which the reference

occurs using “supra” and “infra” (“above” and “below,” respectively).

Refer to Rule 4.2 for other kinds of cross-references (using “supra” and “hereinafter”).

(a)

Cross-referencing text

To refer to another portion of the text, use:

See supra text accompanying notes xx–yy.

See infra Part IV.

Do not refer to page ranges using “p.” or “pp.”

(b)

Cross-referencing text and footnotes

When directing the reader’s attention specifically to the footnotes themselves, use:

See supra notes xx–yy.

When the reference draws on something substantive in both the text and the notes, use:

See infra notes xx–yy and accompanying text.

Rule 4: Short Citation Forms

Consult the following rules for model short citation forms organized by authority:

Cases Rule 10.9

Constitutions Rule 11

Statutes Rule 12.10

Legislative Materials Rule 13.8

Regulations Rule 14.5

Books, Reports, and Other Rule 15.10

Nonperiodic Materials

Periodical Materials Rule 16.9

Unpublished and Forthcoming Sources Rule 17.6

Internet, Electronic Media, Rule 18.8

and Other Nonprint Resources

Services Rule 19.2

Foreign Materials Rule 20.7

International Materials Rule 21.17

4.1 “

Id.

”

Use “id.” when citing the immediately preceding authority only if the authority is the only one cited in

the immediately preceding sentence or footnote. The period in “id.” is always italicized.

1 Nader v. General Motors Corp., 255 N.E.2d 765, 770–71 (1970).

2 Id. at 771.

A parenthetical is not a citation for purposes of “id.” Other citations outside of parentheses, such as

subsequent history, are citations for purposes of “id.”

36 Washington v. Jenny Craig Weight Loss Centres, Inc., 3 F. Supp. 2d 941, 950 (N.D. Ill.

1998) (quoting Rabinovitz v. Pena, 89 F.3d 482, 489 (7th Cir. 1998)).

37 See id. at 953.

“Id.” may not be used to refer to a constitution or a statute. For more details, refer to the relevant

short-form rule.

After the initial citation (including a drop citation) and four consecutive “id.” citations, repeat the

full or short citation, whichever is appropriate.

4.2

“Supra

” and “Hereinafter”

(a)

Supra

Supra is used for all short-form citations to all authorities other than cases, constitutions, statutes,

and materials analogous to statutes (such as treatises, the Code of Federal Regulations, and model

codes).

Refer to the model short forms for each authority—but generally, the form is: “supra note xx,”

preceded by (1) the last name of the author of the work, or (2) if the author is an institution, the full

name of the author, or (3) if there is no author, the title of the work. The use of “et al.” is appropriate

in short cites when there are more than two authors.

The rules for supra citations do not apply when a simple “id.” cite would suffice.

(b)

“Hereinafter”

“Hereinafter” is used alongside a long citation whenever a later use of “supra” would be cumbersome or

confusing, and is appended in brackets.

20 RICHARD H. FALLON, JR., JOHN F. MANNING, DANIEL J. MELTZER & DAVID L. SHAPIRO,

HART AND WECHSLER’S THE FEDERAL COURTS AND THE FEDERAL SYSTEM 330 (7th ed.

2015) [hereinafter FALLON ET AL., THE FEDERAL COURTS].

21 See supra text accompanying notes 15–18.

22 FALLON ET AL., THE FEDERAL COURTS, supra note 20, at 331.

If a piece only cites one title from an author (or from a unique combination of authors), the use of a

hereinafter bracket is discretionary. If a hereinafter bracket is used, it should include only the author(s’)

last name(s). Institutional author names may be shortened and abbreviated as appropriate.

If a piece cites multiple different titles from a single author (or from a unique combination of authors),

the use of hereinafter brackets is mandatory. Assign each source a hereinafter bracket as follows:

[hereinafter {author(s’) last name(s)}, {abbreviated title}]

Use small caps or italics as appropriate for the title.

Rule 5: Quotations

5.1 Formatting of Quotations

Enclose quotation of fewer than fifty words in double quotation marks.

Set off quotations of fifty words or more as a left-indented block quotation. Do not indent on the

right. The quotation should appear without enclosing quotation marks, and quotation marks within

a block quotation should appear as they do in the original.

The common law, however, does not enforce contracts made under undue influence—

where one party coerces or manipulates the other—because in these circumstances the

contract does not reflect the free will of both parties. This doctrine may also include the

situation where the “weaker party is for some reason under the domination of the stronger.”

In footnotes, the source for a block quotation should be followed by a colon, rather than a period,

then by the indented block quote on a new line. Block quotations in footnotes are indented on both

the left and right sides. Subsequent sources in the same note should begin on a separate line after the

quotation, flush left with the (original) left margin. They should also begin with a capital letter and

take a new signal, such as “see also.”

Indentations in block quotations—like all other indentations not specifically discussed in Appendix

2—should be of one-quarter inch.

Place commas and periods inside quotation marks; other punctuation (such as question marks and

exclamation points) should be placed inside quotation marks only if part of the original

punctuation.

Quotation marks used to enclose terms used in a nonstandard, ironic, or other special sense are called

“scare quotes,” and should be used only sparingly. See THE CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE

¶ 7.57.

5.2 Alterations and Quotations Within Quotations

(a)

Alterations

When a letter in a quoted sentence must be changed from lower- to uppercase or vice versa,

enclose it in brackets. Other substituted or inserted material should also be bracketed.

As described by a local periodical, DeGrom’s testimony was that he “[h]ad never truly

confronted [his own] anxieties before that fateful night in July.”

Omitted letters should be indicated by brackets enclosing a nonbreaking space. Consult

Appendix 1 of this manual for instructions on creating nonbreaking spaces.

Jack London said that if one does not “hold[ ] good cards,” one can still “play[ ] a poor

hand well.”

Significant mistakes in the original should be followed by “[sic],” but left unaltered. Historical or

unconventional spellings should never be accompanied by “[sic].”

A press statement from the White House that day relayed that a primary goal of the Israel trip

was to “promote the possibility of lasting peach [sic].”

“The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker.” U.S. CONST, art. I, § 2, cl. 5.

In all cases, indicate parenthetically whether the source quoted contains any omitted alteration(s),

citation(s), emphasis, or quotation marks.

Ford, 477 U.S. at 399 (quotation marks omitted).

Welch, 482 U.S. at 488 (alterations and citations omitted).

“Citation omitted” is unnecessary when the omitted citation comes at the end of the quotation or is

within a passage omitted by an ellipsis. However, do not use an ellipsis to remove just a citation

sentence. Instead, omit the citation sentence and use a “citation omitted” parenthetical.

Whenever material is emphasized in a quote, include either an “(emphasis added)” or (if original to

the quoted material) an “(emphasis in original)” parenthetical.

(b)

Quotations within quotations

Enclose double-quoted material (quoted material within a quotation) in single quotation marks.

Alternate double and single quotation marks for each succeeding level of quotation.

The author asserts that “Tribe’s analysis of Holmes’s language in Schenck, ‘The issue is

whether Schenck’s conduct posed a “clear and present danger” of imminent lawless

action,’ severely misrepresents the doctrine.”

If the entirety of the quoted material is itself quoted material, only one set of standard quotation marks

should be used.

Quoting Blackstone, Gouverneur Morris asserted that “[t]he Judges in England played a

central role in the legislative process.”

Whenever material is quoted in a quote, include a “(quoting…)” parenthetical—even when the entirety

of the quoted material is itself quoted material, and the internal quotation marks are therefore omitted.

Roberto’s Fruit Mkt., Inc. v. Schaffer, 13 F. Supp. 2d. 390, 396 (E.D.N.Y. 1998) (quotation

marks omitted) (quoting Shapiro v. Cantor, 123 F.3d 717, 728 (2d Cir. 1997)).

5.3 Omissions

Omissions must be noted. Indicate omission of multiple words within a quoted sentence by replacing

the omitted text with an ellipsis—three dots separated from the text by spaces and from each other by

nonbreaking spaces (. . .).

“The creation of a corporation, it is said, appertains to sovereignty.”

Becomes: “The creation of a corporation . . . appertains to sovereignty.”

If the omission is at the beginning of the quoted material, no ellipsis is necessary. If the omission is

at the end of the quoted material, the ellipsis may be omitted and the quoted material may end with

a period—unless it is important to show that material has been omitted. In that case, replace the

omitted text with an ellipsis followed by the final punctuation of the sentence.

“Is the legislature the only branch of government that should exercise legislative powers, or

does the Constitution permit delegation to the executive?”

Becomes: “Is the legislature the only branch of government that should exercise

legislative powers . . . ?”

On the other hand, if the last part of a quoted sentence is omitted and followed by further

quotation, use an ellipsis to indicate the omitted material, but retain the period to indicate the end of

the sentence. Insert one nonbreaking space (three total) between each of the four periods.

I can’t remember if I cried . . . . But something touched me deep inside, the day the music died.

When only one word is removed from a quote, insert brackets enclosing a nonbreaking space.

The court required that “each party [ ] submit its jury instructions immediately.”

When the omitted material immediately follows a complete, intact sentence, the period at the end of the

completed sentence remains unchanged (that is, do not add a space between the last word of the

sentence and the period). A regular, three-dot ellipsis follows the period to indicate the omitted material.

The placement of nonbreaking spaces is the same as with a three-dot ellipsis (two total).

The government of the Union, then, (whatever may be the influence of this fact on the

case,) is, emphatically, and truly, a government of the people. In form and in substance it

emanates from them. Its powers are granted by them, and are to be exercised directly on

them, and for their benefit.

The government of the Union, then, (whatever may be the influence of this fact on the

case,) is, emphatically, and truly, a government of the people. . . . Its powers are granted

by them, and are to be exercised directly on them, and for their benefit.

If the omitted material consists of one or more complete paragraphs, then the ellipsis must appear

alone on a new line.

Economists presume that consumers are rational and aware of their preferences.

. . .

Over the long run markets produce efficient results.

Rule 6: Abbreviations, Numerals, and Symbols

6.1 Abbreviations

This section explains the rules for spacing and punctuating abbreviations in text and citations. If a

word does not appear in any of the tables in Appendix 3 of this manual, then do not abbreviate it.

(a)

Spacing

Close adjacent single capital letters, including initials for names. The one exception is for

periodicals when one or more of the adjacent single capitals refer to an institution. Individual

numbers are treated like a single capital.

S.D.N.Y.

N.Y.U. L. REV.

F.3d

H.L.A. Hart

Do not close anything containing more than a single capital letter.

S. Ct.

D. Ariz.

F. Supp. 3d

(b)

Periods

(1)

Periods should follow abbreviations unless the first or last letter of the abbreviation is set

off by an apostrophe.

Corp.

Ass’n

P’ship

(2)

Periods should not be placed between common initialisms that are usually only

referred to as their initials in speech, unless they are the name of a reporter, code, or

court of decision. Uncommon initialisms, such as those for states or cities, should

always contain periods.

NLRB v. Baptist Hosp., Inc., 442 U.S. 773 (1979).

But: E. Beldon Corp., 239 N.L.R.B. 776 (1978)

N.Y.

(c)

United States, U.S., America, and American

“United States” should only be used as a noun. “U.S.” should only be used as an adjective.

Additionally, do not use “America” or “American” when one of “United States” or “U.S.”

would work, unless common usage dictates otherwise.

The United States produces a lot of cheese. This U.S. cheese is then exported to other

countries.

I usually put American cheese on my sandwiches.

(d)

Acceptable abbreviations and phrases

Months, geographical terms, and several common words can be abbreviated in citations. For a

comprehensive list of these the words and their corresponding abbreviations, consult the

appropriate table in Appendix 3 of this manual.

6.2 Numerals and Symbols

Independent of the below rules, in all sentences that start with a number or symbol, spell out the

first word.

Ninety-nine bottles of beer are on the wall.

Section 1983 claims are often unsuccessful.

(a)

Numerals

(1)

In general, spell out zero to ninety-nine in text and footnotes. For larger numbers,

such as 186, use numerals.

(2)

Spell out any such one to ninety-nine multiple of hundreds, thousands, millions, and so

on.

(3)

If a series of numbers include both numbers less than 100 and greater than 100, use

numerals for all of them.

(4)

If the number has a decimal point, use a numeral.

(5)

Use numerals for percentage and dollar amounts.

(6)

Use numerals for sections and subsections.

(7)

When a number used in text or citations has four or more uninterrupted digits, use

commas to set off every three numbers, except for citations to pages, statutes, volume

numbers, internet database locators, docket numbers, the U.S. Code, or other sources

whose classification systems do not themselves include commas.

(b)

Ordinals

(1)

Ordinal numbers used in text and footnotes—but not citations—should generally

follow the same rules as Rule 6.2(a).

(2)

Ordinals in citations should never use superscripts.

(3)

In main and footnote text, use “2nd” and “3rd,” but in citations, use “2d” and “3d.”

(c)

Section and paragraph symbols

Only use the section symbol (§) in main and footnote text when referencing the U.S. Code, federal

regulations, or any other appropriate sources. Never use the paragraph symbol (¶) in main or

footnote text, but use it in citations for any appropriate sources. For both, separate the symbol and

the number with a nonbreaking space. Otherwise, spell out “section” and “paragraph” in main and

footnote text.

(d)

Dollar and percent symbols

(1)

Spell out “dollar” or “percent” whenever the number is spelled out. Separate the

number and the spelled-out word with a regular space.

(2)

Use the dollar symbol ($) and the percent symbol (%) whenever numerals are used.

Never place a space between the symbol and the numeral.

Rule 7: Italicizing for Style and in Unique Circumstances

This section discusses italicizing for emphasis, for foreign words and phrases, and in other

unique situations. See Rule 2 for more discussion on the use of typefaces.

(a)

Emphasis

Words and phrases may be italicized sparingly for emphasis.

(b)

Foreign words and phrases

(1)

Italicize non-English words and phrases unless they are in Merriam-Webster or

Black’s Law Dictionary.

(2)

Latin words and phrases that are often used in legal writing are considered to be in

common English usage and should not be italicized. However, Latin phrases over four

words and obsolete or uncommon Latin words and phrases should remain italicized.

(3)

Id. is always italicized, including the period.

(4)

Procedural phrases in case names (e.g., in re and ex rel.) should always be italicized,

including any period, in both text and footnotes.

(5)

E.g. should not be italicized in text but should be italicized when used as a signal.

(c)

Letters representing hypothetical parties, places, and things

Italicize and capitalize letters when used to represent hypothetical parties, places, and things.

Let us assume X number of people will take Y number of classes.

(d)

The letter “L”

Italicize the lowercase letter “L” when used as a subdivision (as in a statute or a rule) to

distinguish it from the numeral 1.

The footnote cites to both Rule 1 and Rule 4(l).

(e)

Mathematical expressions

Italicize mathematical formulas and variables.

Rule 8: Capitalization

This section discusses capitalization for headings, citations, and text. For rules on capitalization for

titles of persons, see Rule 9. For any questions left unanswered, please consult The Chicago Manual of

Style.

(a)

Headings and titles

Capitalize the first word of headings and titles, any words that directly follow a colon, and all

nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions that are longer than four letters. Do not

capitalize articles, conjunctions, and prepositions that are four letters or shorter.

(b)

Internet main page titles and URLs

In both text and footnotes, capitalize all words in internet main page titles and URLs in

accordance with the source material.

(c)

Text

(1)

Nouns that identify specific persons, officials, groups, government offices, or

government bodies should always be capitalized. The adjectival form of these

categories should not be capitalized.

history of Congress

congressional history

(2)

References to specific legislative acts should be capitalized.

The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 was a landmark piece of legislation. The Act

is sometimes referred to as part of the “Indian New Deal.”

(3)

Circuit should be capitalized when used with a specific number, D.C., or Federal.

Otherwise, it should be lowercase.

The Federal Circuit is the only circuit to hear patent cases.

(4)

Code should be capitalized when referring to specific codes.

While not all codes offer much change, the courts have considered differences in the

1939 and 1954 Codes as relevant.

(5)

State and Commonwealth should be capitalized when used as part of a state name,

when the word it modifies is capitalized, or when referring to a state or government

actor or party in litigation.

(6)

Constitution should be capitalized when referring to the U.S. Constitution or when

naming any specific constitution. The adjectival form, constitutional, should never be

capitalized. All nouns referring to specific sections of the U.S. Constitution should be

capitalized in text and footnotes but not in citations. For rules on citations to

constitutions, see Rule 11.

(7)

Court should be capitalized when naming any court by its full name or when referring to

the U.S. Supreme Court.

(8)

Federal should be capitalized when the word it modifies is capitalized.

(9)

Judge or Justice should be capitalized when used with the name of a specific judge or

justice. Justice should be capitalized when referring to a Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court,

whether specifically or generally.

(10)

Term should be capitalized when referring to a specific term of the U.S. Supreme Court.

(11)

Whenever referring to the piece itself, the appropriate designation (such as “Article,”

“Comment,” “Essay,” “Book Review,” etc.) should be used and capitalized.

Rule 9: Titles of Judges, Officials, and Terms of Court

(a)

Names

In addition to any possible title, always give a person’s full name on first reference.

(b)

Justices and judges

In subsequent references in text, refer to all U.S. Supreme Court Justices as Justice or Chief Justice

plus their last name, like Chief Justice Roberts or Justice Sotomayor. In parentheticals, use “Roberts,

C.J.,” “Sotomayor, J.,” or “Jackson & Kagan, J.J.” Do the same for judges and chief judges.

(c)

Other officials

On first reference, all other officials should receive their official title and full name. Subsequent

references should only be to their last name. Never omit the title “President.”

Attorney General Elliot Richardson resigned during the Saturday Night Massacre. President

Richard Nixon had asked Richardson to fire Special Prosecutor Archibald Cox. Richardson

refused and instead offered President Nixon his resignation.

(d)

Ordering

Justices of the U.S. Supreme Court are always listed as the Chief Justice first and then in order of

seniority. Judges should be listed in the same order as they are at the beginning of the court’s official

reporter.

(e)

Term of court

A court’s term in progress at time of writing should be referred to as “this term.” The immediately

prior term should be referred to as “last term.” Any other term should be referred to as the year and

then term, such as “1993 term.” The U.S. Supreme Court Terms should always be indicated by the

year the Term started, not the year it ended.

(f)

Parenthetic references

In parenthetic references, abbreviate the following officials as listed:

Administrative Law Judge

A.L.J.

Arbitrator

Arb.

Assembly[man, woman, member]

Assemb.

Attorney General

Att’y Gen.

Baron

Chancellor

Chief Baron

C.B.

Chief Judge, Chief Justice

C.J.

Commissioner

Comm’r

Delegate

Del.

Honorable

Hon.

Judge, Justice

Judges, Justices

J.J.

Lord Justice

L.J.

Magistrate

Mag.

Master of the Rolls

M.R.

Mediator

Med.

Referee

Ref.

Representative

Rep.

Senator

Sen.

Vice Chancellor

V.C.

Rule 10: Cases

This section discusses the details of referring to cases in text and citing cases in footnotes. The

basic citation forms provide a quick guide to referring to and citing cases. The sections that

follow develop the more detailed rules, such as the way to format case names, the order of

preference for reporters, and how to format or order case history and parentheticals.

10.1 Basic Citation Form

In general, use the four forms below in text, in drop citations, in long citations, and in short citations. The

first time a case is referred to in text, a drop citation should be used. In general, drop citations should not

contain any further information than the volume, reporter, first page, and year; authors may include

subsequent history when omitting it would be misleading.

In Text: {Party 1 v. Party 2}, {volume number} {reporter} {1st page},

{pincite} ({court} {year}).

Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45 (1905).

Welge v. Planters Lifesavers Co., 17 F.3d 209 (7th Cir. 1994).

Drop Citation: {volume number} {reporter} {1st page} ({court} {year}).

198 U.S. 45 (1905).

17 F.3d 209 (7th Cir. 1994).

Full Citation: {Party 1 v. Party 2}, {volume number} {reporter} {1st page},

{pincite} ({court} {year}).

Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45, 56 (1905).

Welge v. Planters Lifesavers Co., 17 F.3d 209, 210 (7th Cir. 1994).

Short Citation: {short case name}, {volume number} {reporter} at {pincite}.

Lochner, 198 U.S. at 56.

Welge, 17 F.3d at 210.

More specifically, use the following citation forms when called for:

Published final decision

Ward v. Reddy, 727 F. Supp. 1407, 1412 (D.

Mass. 1990).

Unpublished final decision available in

electronic database

Winters v. Akzo Nobel Surface Chemistry,

LLC, 2020 WL 2474428, at *1 (E.D. Pa. May

13, 2020).

Unpublished final decision not available in

electronic database

Smith v. Steele, 02-CV-1482, Dkt. No. 13, at

4 (D. Mass. Jan. 15, 2003).

Unpublished final decision available in

electronic database after revision

Narasimhan v. Monnin, 1990 WL 006473, at

*4 (D. Mass. Dec. 4, 1990, revised Jan. 3,

1991).

Final decision published in service only

Tice v. Scotten, 1990 Fed. Sec. L. Rep.

(CCH) 102,342 (D. Mass. Dec. 4, 1990).

Final decision published in newspaper only

Mishra v. Grohman, N.Y. L.J., Dec. 5, 1990,

at 1 (D. Mass. Dec. 4, 1990).

Published interim order

Order Denying Motion to Dismiss, Haber v.

Scotten, 725 F. Supp. 1395, 1397 (D. Mass.

1990).

Unpublished interim order available in electronic

database

Order Denying Motion for Preliminary

Injunction, Ramirez v. Kirkpatrick, 2022

WL 2020310, at *1 (N.D. Ill. Dec. 12,

2022).

Unpublished interim order not available in

electronic database

Order Denying Motion for Preliminary

Injunction, Kors v. Kirkpatrick, 23-CV-

00962, Dkt. No. 27, at 2 (N.D. Ill. Apr. 12,

2023).

Brief, motion, or other court filing

Brief for Appellant, Kitchens v. Scotten, 19-

CV-203, Dkt. No. 24 (1st Cir. 1991).

Appeal docketed

Yee v. Grohman, 727 F. Supp. 1407 (D.

Mass. 1990), appeal docketed, No. 90-567

(1st Cir. Dec. 20, 1990).

Petition for certiorari filed

Grohman v. Tice, 925 F.2d 314 (1st Cir.

1991), petition for cert. filed, 60 U.S.L.W. 3422

(U.S. Jan. 14, 1992) (No. 92-212).

Disposition in Supreme Court published only in

service

Flynn v. Kaplan, 60 U.S.L.W. 4420, 4421

(U.S. Feb. 4, 1992), vacating as moot 925

F.2d 314 (1st Cir. 1991).

Filed but undecided

United States v. Jensen, 90-CR-345 (D.

Mass. filed Sept. 18, 1990).

10.2 Case Names

Case names in text should be italicized and use minimal abbreviations, as described below. Case

names in citations should not be italicized (except for short forms) and should use any and all

abbreviations listed in Appendix 3.

In general, the case name should be taken verbatim from the case reported being cited. If no case name

is listed in the reporter, cite to the popular name for the case or “Judgment of {date}.”

(a)

Actions and parties cited

(1)

If the case consolidates multiple cases into one, use only the first case listed.

(2)

If multiple parties are named, use only the first party listed on both sides.

(3)

Always omit “et al.” or any alternative names given to either party.

(4)

For in rem cases, use only the first piece of property.

(5)

If real property is a party, use its common street address if possible.

(6)

If a bankruptcy case lists both an adversary and nonadversary name, cite the

adversary name first and the nonadversary name second in parentheses. Always

include the procedural phrase in the nonadversary name and the descriptive phrase,

per Rule 10.2(b) below.

(b)

Procedural phrases

(1)

Omit all procedural phrases except the first. When adversary parties are named, omit all

procedural phrases except “ex rel.”

(2)

Abbreviate “on the relation of,” “for the use of,” “on behalf of,” “as next friend of,”

and similar phrases as “ex rel.”

(3)

Abbreviate “in the matter of,” “petition of,” “application of,” and similar phrases as

“In re.”

(4)

Include any descriptive phrases, such as “Accounting of,” “Estate of,” and “Will of.”

(5)

Always italicize procedural phrases, regardless of whether the rest of the case name is

italicized.

(c)

Abbreviations

(1)

In text, abbreviate only universally known initialisms under Rule 6.1(b)(2) and these

eight words: “&,” “Ass’n,” “Bros.,” “Co.,” “Corp.,” “Inc.,” “Ltd.,” and “No.” The one

exception is if a party’s name begins with one of these words, in which case it should

not be abbreviated.

(2)

In citations:

(i)

Abbreviate words according to the tables in Appendix 3, even if the word is

the first word of a party, unless the word is part of a country, state, or other

geographical unit that is the entire name of the party.

(ii)

Abbreviate geographical units, including United States, according to the

tables in Appendix 3, unless the word is part of a country, state, or other

geographical unit that is the entire name of the party.

(iii)

Abbreviate words of eight letters or more if substantial space is saved and the

result is unambiguous.

(d)

The word “the”

(1)

In text and citations, omit the word “the” as the first word of a party, unless referring to

an in rem action or if the party is “The King” or “The Queen.”

(2)

In citations, do not omit “The” when included in popular case names. In text, use a

lowercase, nonitalicized “the.”

The Civil Rights Cases, 109 U.S. 3 (1883).

Justice Harlan was the lone dissenter in the Civil Rights Cases.

(e)

Descriptive terms

Omit “administrator,” “appellee,” “executor,” “licensee,” “trustee,” and similar terms that

describe a named party.

(f)

Geographical terms

(1)

Omit “State of,” “Commonwealth of,” or “People of,” except when referring to

decisions made by the state court of the named state, in which case only use “State,”

“Commonwealth,” or “People.”

(2)

Omit “City of,” “County of,” “Village of,” “Township of,” and other similar phrases,

unless the phrase begins a party’s name.

(3)

Omit all prepositional phrases of location that do not follow “City,” “County,”

“Village,” “Township,” or similar phrases unless (i) the omission would leave only

one word as the name of the party or (ii) the location is part of the full name of a

business or similar entity.

(4)

Include designations of national or larger geographical areas except for (i) in union

names and (ii) “of America” after “United States.”

(5)

Include all geographical designations not included in a preposition.

(6)

Omit all geographical designations that follow a comma.

(g)

Given names or initials

(1)

Omit given names of individuals except (i) in names of business and (ii) when a

party’s surname is abbreviated.

(2)

Include the entire surname if it is multiple words. For Spanish and Portuguese names,

cite the surname and all names that follow.

(3)

Include given names for languages in which the given name follows the surname.

(h)

Business firm definitions

Omit “Inc.,” “Ltd.,” “L.L.C.,” “N.A.,” “F.S.B.,” and similar terms if the name of a party is a

business, the party could not possibly be understood as anything other than a business, and the name of

the party already includes “Ass’n,” “Bros.,” “Co.,” “Corp.,” “Ins.,” “R.R.,” or a similar term.

(i)

Union and local union names

Cite to union names exactly as given in the reporter except (i) include only the smallest unit;

(ii) omit all craft or industry designations, except the first full designation; (iii) use widely recognized

union abbreviations in accordance with Rule 6.1(b)(2) and Rule 10.2(c); (iv) omit all prepositional

phrases of locations, including those of national or larger areas.

(j)

Commissioner of Internal Revenue

In text, cite only “Commissioner.” In citations, cite only “Comm’r.”

(k)

Common name different from name in reporter

(1)

For cases known by a common name other than that in the reporter, the common

name must be indicated parenthetically in the same typeface as the reported name.

(2)

For cases known by both a common name and the name in the reporter, the common

name cannot replace the reported name, but instead must be indicated parenthetically

and italicized after the case name and before the reporter in the citation. The common

name can then be used as the short citation. The same rule can be used for writs of

mandamus that are known as the name of the judge, where the judge’s name can be

placed parenthetically following the reporter name.

(3)

For cases with multiple dispositions, an italicized short name followed by a Roman

numeral indicating the disposition number may be placed parenthetically after the

case name and before the reporter.

(4)

Parenthetical short citations should only be given when the full citation is the primary

citation in a footnote. The parenthetical name can then be used in all future citations,

even when a full citation would be necessary. The parentheses should never be italicized.

10.3 Reporters and Other Sources

The format for a reporter citation is:

{volume number} {reporter} {first page of decision}

(a)

State court

Cite to the relevant regional reporter, if the decision is found there. If the decision is not found in

either of these preferred reporters, then:

(1) Cite one of the other sources in the table below.

(2) If unavailable in any of the sources below, cite one of the following, in this order of

preference: (i) an unofficial reporter, (ii) a widely used computer database

(Rule 18.3), (iii) a service (Rule 19), (iv) a slip opinion (Rule 10.8.(b)), (v) an internet

source (Rule 18.2), or (vi) a newspaper (Rule 16.6).

(b)

Non–Supreme Court

Use the renamed jurisdictional reporters rather than those named after the editors.

(c)

Early Supreme Court

For Supreme Court decisions in and before 1874 (through 90 U.S. (23 Wall.)) and some early

state reporters, include both the jurisdictional reporter and the reporter named for the editor,

following these rules:

(1) If the pagination of the jurisdictional reporter is the same as that named after the

editor, cite as follows: 21 U.S. (8 Wheat.) 1.

(2) If the pagination of the jurisdictional reporter is different than that named after the

editor, cite as follows: 23 Mass. 62, 6 Pick. 63.

(d)

Early Pennsylvania federal and state courts

For the early Pennsylvania federal and state decisions cited in the U.S. Reports, include both the

U.S. Reports and the parallel reporter citation, according to Rule 10.3(c)(2).

(e)

Reporter abbreviations

Cite reporters in the order of preference as they are listed in the relevant geographic jurisdiction in

Table 1 of The Bluebook.

10.4 Court and Jurisdiction

This section discusses U.S. federal and state courts. For foreign courts, see Rule 20.3. A

parenthetical should follow every case citation and include the geographical location of the court

(abbreviate per Table 10 in Appendix 3 of this manual), the name of the court, and the date or year

of the decision.

(a)

Federal courts

(1)

Supreme Court: Omit the court abbreviation for the U.S. Supreme Court when citing

to the United States Reports or the Supreme Court Reporter. The Court should be

abbreviated “U.S.” when citing to the United States Law Weekly.

(2)

Courts of Appeals:

(i)

When a Supreme Court Justice sits on a lower court in the capacity of a

circuit judge, the parenthetical should be: ({Last Name}, {Circuit Justice},

{court abbreviation} {year}).

(ii)

Use only the following abbreviations for the Courts of Appeals: 1st Cir.; 2d

Cir.; 3d Cir.; 4th Cir.; 5th Cir.; 6th Cir.; 7th Cir.; 8th Cir.; 9th Cir.; 10th Cir.;

11th Cir.; D.C. Cir.; Fed. Cir.

(iii)

When necessary, cite the old circuit courts that were abolished in 1912 (e.g.,

C.C.S.D.N.Y.; C.C.E.D. Mo.).

(3)

District Courts: Cite only to the district, not the division.

(4)

Specialty Courts:

(i)

Judicial Panel on Multidistrict Litigation: J.P.M.L.

(ii)

Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court: FISA Ct.

(iii)

Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review: FISA Ct. Rev.

(iv)

Bankruptcy Court: Bankr. {district court}

(v)

Bankruptcy Appellate Panel: B.A.P. {circuit court}

(b)

State courts

(1)

State Supreme Court: Omit the court name and cite only to the state abbreviation.

(2)

Lower state courts: Cite to the abbreviated state name and abbreviated court name.

(3)

Omit the state name and/or court name if it is obvious from the name of the reporter.

(4)

Omit the department, district, or county of intermediate state court unless particularly

relevant, in which case, cite in the following order:

{state} {court} {department/district/county}.

(c)

Court abbreviations

For court abbreviations to be used in parentheticals, consult Table 7 in Appendix 3 of this manual.

10.5 Date or Year

(a)

Decisions published in reporters

(1)

As a default, use the year of the decision.

(2)

If the year of decision is unavailable, use the year of the term.

(3)

For decisions prior to Volume 108 (1882) of the U.S. Reports, use the Librarian of the

Supreme Court’s list of dates.

(4)

When ambiguous, use the year on the running head of the reporter.

(b)

Decisions published in other sources

(1)

Use the full date for all cases cited to a looseleaf service, a slip opinion, an electronic

database, or a newspaper.

(2)

Use only the year for unpublished opinions that appear in the Federal Appendix or a

state court equivalent.

(c)

Pending cases and cases dismissed without opinion

(1)

Use the date or year of the most recent major disposition, which only includes the

following:

(i)

Initial filing:

{court} filed / appeal docketed / petition for cert. filed {date}.

(ii)

Oral argument:

{court} argued {date}.

(iii)

Dismissal (if dismissed without opinion):

{court} dismissed {date}.

(2)

Omit the above parentheticals only if the information is included elsewhere, such as in

the prior and subsequent history, as described in Rule 10.7.

(d)

Multiple decisions within a single year

If a case has multiple decisions from the same year listed in the prior or subsequent case history as

described in Rule 10.7, only include the year in the last-cited decision, unless any of the decisions

cited require a full date rather than just a year, in which case, include the date or year in every

citation

10.6 Parenthetical Information Regarding Cases

(a) Order of parentheticals

(1) Generally, parentheticals should be listed in the following order: (i) weight of

authority parentheticals; (ii) “quoting” and “citing” parentheticals; (iii) explanatory

parentheticals.

(2) If an explanatory parenthetical requires an additional explanation, nest an explanatory

parenthetical within the original parenthetical.

(b) Weight of authority

(1) Weight of authority phrases, such as “en banc,” “2–1 decision,” “mem.,” “per

curiam,” “{name}, J.,” and “unpublished table decision” may be included directly

after the year. The following rules also apply:

(i) The phrase “mem.” should only be used if a disposition does not include an

opinion. That is, opinions designated “memorandum opinion” do not receive

the parenthetical.

(ii) The phrase “per curiam” is used whenever an opinion is issued by the court

rather than a particular judge or Justice.

(iii) Prior to the Marshall Court (Feb. 4, 1801), the Supreme Court issued a set of

opinions with one written by each Justice. Always include a parenthetical

noting “opinion of {name}, J.” when citing to these.

(iv) To cite to a Supreme Court Justice’s ruling on stay, bail, and injunction

applications “in chambers,” include the following parenthetical: “{name}, J., in

chambers.” Note the following:

(A) Always cite to the U.S. Reports when available. All in-chambers

opinions should be available in the U.S. Reports post-1969.

(B) Pre-1969, some in-chambers opinions will be available in the U.S.

Reports. If unavailable, cite to Cynthia Rapp’s In Chambers Opinions by the

Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States, using

“Rapp” as the reporter abbreviation.

(2) When a case is cited for something other than its holding, indicate that with an

appropriate parenthetical, such as “alternative holding,” “by implication,” “dictum,”

“{name}, J., dissenting,” “{name}, J., concurring,” “{name}, J., concurring in the

judgment,” “plurality opinion,” “holding unclear.”

(3) Information regarding related authority (Rule 1.6) or prior and subsequent history

(Rule 10.7) should be included in an explanatory phrase, not a parenthetical.

(1) When a case is cited as authority itself cites or quotes another authority, include a

“citing” or “quoting” parenthetical, applying the same rules for typeface, pincites, and

short forms that would be used in text.

(2) Only include one level of “quoting” or “citing.” That is, if the case cites to another case,

which includes a quoting parenthetical, only include the first citation, unless the

information conveyed is particularly relevant.

10.7 Prior and Subsequent History

(a)

General rules

(1)

Give a case’s entire subsequent history in the full cite, except for:

(i)

discretionary appeals like denials of certiorari, unless the discretionary

appeals happened two years or more recently.

(ii)

any history on remands or denials of rehearing unless particularly relevant.

(iii)

any disposition withdrawn by the deciding authority, such as an affirmance

followed by a reversal on rehearing.

(2)

Only give prior history only if relevant for the point being cited or if the disposition

being cited does not intelligibly describe the case (e.g., a Supreme Court’s “mem.”

opinion).

(3)

Give separate decisions of other issues in a case with their prior and subsequent

history only when relevant.

(b)

Explanatory phrases

(1)

Ordering

(i)

Place an italicized explanatory phrase after all parentheticals from the main

case citation and before any prior or subsequent history. If the prior or

subsequent history happened in the same year as the case cited, follow Rule

10.5(d) on whether to list the date or year.

(ii)

If the subsequent history has subsequent history, append an additional

italicized explanatory phrase after any parentheticals of the first subsequent

history.

(iii)

Always place prior history before subsequent history if both are listed.

(2)

Dispositions

(i)

Give the reason for the disposition if the disposition does not carry normal

substantive significance.

(ii)

Note cases that have been overruled, abrogated, or superseded by case,

statute, or constitution.

(A)

Use overruled by if the same court or a court with appellate jurisdiction

over the original court explicitly repudiates the earlier decision. If

multiple cases overrule, include each case and separate each by “and."

(B)

Use abrogated by if the same court effectively but not explicitly

repudiates the earlier decision.

(C)

Use superseded by {statute/constitutional amendment} when a statute or

amendment repudiates the case. Cite to the session laws and, if possible,

the particular section of the statute or amendment that repudiates the

case. If a later court recognizes the repudiation, it is up to the author’s

discretion to include “as recognized by” after the statute and before

naming the case.

(iii)

Multiple dispositions by the same court following a case should be separated by

“and.”

(3)

Different names on appeal

(i)

When the case name is different in subsequent history, include the phrase

“sub nom.” after the dispositional phrase, unless:

(A)

The change in name is just a reversal of the parties.

(B)

The citation in which the name is changed is a denial of certiorari or

rehearing.

(C)

The case is an appeal of an administrative action, and the name of the

private party stays the same.

(D)

When the name change is purely stylistic (e.g., “State” to “Illinois”).

(ii)

When the case name is different in prior history, simply name the case in full

after the dispositional phrase.

(4)

Cases Involving Enslaved Persons

For cases involving an enslaved person as a party, use the parenthetical “(enslaved party).” For

cases involving an enslaved person as the subject of a property or other legal dispute but not

named as a party to the suit, use the parenthetical “(enslaved person at issue).” For other cases

involving enslaved persons, use an adequately descriptive parenthetical

(5)

Options for phrases

The following phrases are among those acceptable for denoting either prior or

subsequent history. Note that the periods used in these phrases are italicized, but any

commas used are not italicized.

acq.

cert. denied,

perm. app. denied,

acq. in result

cert. dismissed,

perm. app. granted,

aff’d,

cert. dismissed as

improvidently granted,

petition for cert. filed,

aff’d by an equally divided court,

cert. granted,

prob. juris. noted,

aff’d mem.

certifying questions to

reh’g granted,

aff’d on other grounds,

denying cert. to

reh’g denied,

aff’d on reh’g,

dismissing appeal from

rev’d,

aff’g

enforced,

rev’d on other grounds,

amended by

enforcing

rev’d per curiam,

appeal denied,

invalidated by

rev’g

appeal dismissed,

mandamus denied,

vacated,

appeal docketed,

modified,

vacating as moot

appeal filed,

modifying

withdrawn,

argued,

nonacq.

10.8 Special Citation Forms

(a)

Pending and unreported cases

(1)

For cases available on electronic media, include the case name, database identifier, and

a parenthetical with the court name and the full date. Use Westlaw over LEXIS for the

database identifier if available on both. Do not use Bloomberg identifiers. Any pincites

should be preceded by an asterisk and placed after the database identifier. The template

looks as follows:

{Party 1 v. Party 2}, {docket identifier}, at *{pincite} ({court} {full date})

Note the following additional rules:

(i)

If the name of the database is not obvious from the identifier, include it in a

parenthetical after the court and date.

(ii)

If a case does not have a unique data base identifier, include the docket

number and a parenthetical with enough relevant information for the case to

be found.

Frankel v. Banco Nacional de Mex., S.A., No. 82-CV-6547 (S.D.N.Y.

May 31, 1983) (LEXIS, Genfed Library, Dist. File).

Lindquist v. Hart, 1 CA-CV 98-0323 (Ariz. Ct. App. July 15, 1999)

(Loislaw, Ariz. Case Law).

(2)

If a case is only available as a slip opinion, cite to the case name and the docket

number, and include a parenthetical with the court and full date. Additionally, some

special rules apply:

(i)

For a pincite, format as follows:

{Party 1 v. Party 2}, {docket number}, at {pincite} ({court} {date}).

(ii)

For a pincite when case is not separately paginated, format as follows:

{Party 1 v. Party 2}, {docket number}, {first page}, {pincite} ({court}

{date}).

(iii)

For slip opinions for bankruptcy opinions, cite both the adversarial and

nonadversarial case names as well as both the adversarial and nonadversarial

docket numbers.

Brown v. Sachs (In re Brown), Ch. 7 Case No. 84-00170-G, Adv. No. 85- 1190, at

5 (E.D. Mich. Jan. 24, 1986).

(3)

Cases that are not available on electronic services or in slip opinions, citations may be

made to services (Rule 19), periodicals (Rule 16), or the internet (Rule 18.2).

(4)

Depublished cases should be noted either (i) in subsequent history by the explanatory

phrase depublished by and the reported order if available or (ii) a parenthetical noting

“depublished” after the court and date parenthetical.

(b)

Briefs, court filings, and transcripts

When citing any brief, filing, or transcript, use the following template, with the electronic

database identifier optional:

{document name}, {case name} {case number}, {PACER filing number}, at *{pincite}.

Brief for Petitioner, Scott v. Harris, 05-CV-1631, Dkt. No. 45, at *17.

The following exceptions apply:

(1)

If no decision has been rendered on the filing, cite the filing as otherwise described

but use the date of filing in the parenthetical.

(2)

For amicus briefs with more than two signatories, “et al.” may be used.

(3)

Audio recordings of court proceedings may be cited to with the timestamp in place of

the pincite and a URL appended if available, pursuant to Rule 18.7.

(c)

Court administrative orders

Cite the official reporter, if therein. If there is no reporter available, cite the docket number. Give

the title of the order, if any.

Order Discharging the Advisory Comm., 352 U.S. 803 (1956).

10.9 Short Forms for Cases

(a)

Footnotes

(1)

Short citations may be used if:

(i)

The case has been drop cited.

(ii)

The case has not been drop cited but has been full cited already in the same part.

Do not abide by the Five Footnote Rule.

(2)

A short citation should always be italicized and include only one party’s name or a

common name if using that name would be unambiguous. Thus, avoid using a

geographical, government, or government official name, or any name of a common

litigant (e.g., NAACP or ACLU). Use the following template:

{short name}, {reporter volume} {reporter} at {pincite}.

(3)

If a short cite is to the case generally, use the following template:

{short name}, {reporter volume} {reporter} {first page of case}.

(4)

For cases cited in an electronic database, use the following rules:

(i)

If the database assigns an identifier, use the following template:

{short name}, {electronic database identifier}, at *{pincite}.

(ii)

If the database does not assign an identifier, use the following template:

{short name}, at *{pincite} ({database information}).

(5)

Do not use short cites for court filings or interim orders. Do not use short cites for

unpublished decisions that are not available on an electronic database.

(b)

“

Id.

”

“Id.” can be used as a short form when the immediately preceding footnote includes only the

case being cited, notwithstanding any quoting or citing phrases, with the following three

clarifications:

(1)

If the citation is to a different opinion than the previous citation (such as a dissent),

use id. but include a parenthetical to denote the opinion being cited.

(2)

If a parallel citation is required, “id.” should be used with a pincite to the first

citation, followed by a short citation to the second reporter.

Id. at 465, 233 A.2d at 563.

(3)

After the initial citation (including a drop citation) and four consecutive “id.”

citations, repeat the full or short citation, whichever is appropriate. Note that

this rule applies to all sources.

(c)

Text

In main text or footnote text, a case that has been cited in full by a drop citation may be referred to

by one of the parties’ names without further citation.

Rule 11: Constitutions

This section details how to refer to and cite the U.S. Constitution and state constitutions. For

the constitutions of other countries, see Rule 20.4.

(a)

In general

(1)

The general form is as follows, with nonbreaking spaces used between the “art.” or

“amend.” or “§” or “cl.” and the number:

{U.S. or STATE ABBREV.} CONST. {pmbl. or art. or amend.} {number of article or

amendment}, § {number of section}, cl. {number of clause}.

U.S. CONST. pmbl.

U.S. CONST. art. I, § 9, cl. 8.

U.S. CONST. amend. XXI, § 1.

ILL. CONST. art. X, § 1, cl. 1.

(2)

Constitutional provisions do not need years. However, if the constitutional provision

has since been repealed or amended, use a parenthetical or cite the repealing provision.

U.S. CONST. amend. XVIII (repealed 1933)

Or: U.S. CONST. amend. XVIII, repealed by U.S. CONST. amend. XXI.

U.S. CONST. art. I, § 3, cl. 1 (amended 1913)

Or: U.S. CONST. art. I, § 3, cl. 1, amended by U.S. CONST. amend. XVII.

(3)

Constitutions that have been entirely superseded or are no longer in effect should be

cited with reference to their year of adoption. If the specific provision cited was

adopted in a different year than the constitution as a whole, indicate the provision’s

year of adoption in a parenthetical.

ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION OF 1781, art. XI.

ARK. CONST. of 1868, art. III, § 2 (1873).

(b)

Short citation

(1)

Constitutions do not have a short citation form.

(2)

Citations to multiple sections within the same article or to multiple amendments

within the same constitution can be included in the same citation sentence.

U.S. CONST. art. I, §§ 7, 10.

U.S. CONST. amends. III, IX.

Rule 12: Statutes

12.1 Basic Citation Form

Use the following examples as templates for all federal and state statutes. Refer to Rules 12.2–.10 for

more detailed guidance. The first time a statute is referred to in text, a drop citation should be included

directly after the statute name but before any abbreviated name of the statute. The drop citation should

be formatted like a full citation but with the name omitted.

Cite to Current Official Code

42 U.S.C. § 1983.

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969

§ 102, 42 U.S.C. § 4332.

Consumer Credit Code, Okla. Stat. tit. 14A,

§ 6-203 (1996).

Cite to Current Unofficial Code

12 U.S.C.A. § 1426 (West).

Parking Authority Law, 53 PA. STAT. ANN.

§ 342 (West 2010).

Cite to Official Session Laws

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969,

Pub. L. No. 91-190, § 102, 83 Stat. 852, 853

(1970) (prior to 1975 amendment).

Cite to Privately Published Session Laws

Uniform Commercial Code—General

Provisions, 2004 Minn. Sess. Law Serv., ch.

162, art. 1, § 16 (West) (to be codified at

MINN. STAT. ANN. § 336.1-301).

Uniting and Strengthening America by

Providing Appropriate Tools Required to

Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act, Pub. L.

No. 107-56, 2001 U.S.C.C.A.N. (115 Stat.)

272 (2001).

Cite to Commercial Electronic Database

10 U.S.C.A. § 10173 (West, Westlaw through

Pub. L. No. 111-4 (excluding Pub. L.

No. 111-3)).

Cite to Secondary Source

Social Security Amendments of 1983, Pub. L.

No. 98-21, 51 U.S.L.W. 203 (1983).

12.2 Choosing the Proper Citation Form

(a)

U.S. statute currently in force

(1)

In general, cite to the name of the statute, if available, and the title and section of the

U.S. Code (U.S.C.). If the U.S.C. is unavailable, cite an unofficial code, such as the

U.S. Code Annotated (U.S.C.A.) or U.S. Code Service (U.S.C.S.). A nonbreaking

space should be used between the section symbol and the number.

Indian Child Welfare Act, 25 U.S.C. §§ 1901–1963. 25

U.S.C. § 1151.

(2)

But if citing the Internal Revenue Code, use I.R.C. instead of 26 U.S.C.

(3)

If the statute is (i) scattered in various sections of the United States Code, (ii) cited for

historical reasons, or (iii) has materially different language in the session laws compared

to the U.S. Code, then cite to the session laws. Cite to the name of the statute, the

session law, and include a parenthetical of where in the United States Code the law is

located. A nonbreaking space should be used between No. and the public law number.

An en dash should be used to indicate statute ranges. Never use “et seq.” If a statute is

codified in several sections of the U.S. Code, include the whole range or, if applicable,

the title(s) in which the statute’s codification is scattered.

Tax Reduction Act of 1975, Pub. L. No. 94-12, 89 Stat. 26 (codified as amended in

scattered sections of 26 U.S.C.).

Indian Reorganization Act, Pub. L. No. 73-383, 48 Stat. 984 (codified at 25

U.S.C. §§ 461–479).

(4)

Prior history may be given parenthetically in the following formats:

33 U.S.C. § 1232(f) (Supp. I 1983) (amending 33 U.S.C. § 1232 (1982)).

28 U.S.C. § 1652 (originally enacted as Act of June 25, 1948, ch. 646, § 1652, 62

Stat. 869, 944).

28 U.S.C. § 1652 (corresponds to the Judiciary Act of 1789, ch. 20, § 34, 1

Stat. 73, 92).

Clayton Act § 7, 15 U.S.C. § 18 (original version at ch. 323, § 7, 38 Stat. 730,

731–32 (1914)).

(b)

U.S. statute no longer in force

(1)

Cite to one of the following, in this order of preference: (i) the current official or

unofficial code in which they appear, (ii) the last edition of the official or unofficial

code in which they appeared, (iii) the session law, or (iv) a secondary source. An

indication of invalidity, repeal, or amendment must be included.

(2)

Invalidated statutes should be noted through an invalidated by clause, followed by

what invalidated the statute.

Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA) of 1993, Pub. L. No. 103-141, 1993

U.S.C.C.A.N. (107 Stat.) 1488, invalidated by City of Boerne v. Flores, 521 U.S. 507

(1997).

(3)

Repealed statutes should be noted by (i) a parenthetical explanation or (ii) a repealed by

clause if particular note should be made of what repealed the statute.

Law of June 1, 1895, ch. 4322, § 23, 1895 Fla. Laws ch. 3, 20–21 (repealed 1969).

Act of Jan. 24, 1923, ch. 42, 42 Stat. 1174, 1208, repealed by Budget and

Accounting Procedures Act of 1950, ch. 946, § 301(97), 64 Stat. 832, 844.

(4)

Amended statutes should be noted by (i) a parenthetical explanation, (ii) an amended by

clause if particular note should be made of what amended the statute, or (iii) a

parenthetical to the current version of the statute.

Supplemental Appropriation Act of 1955, Pub. L. No. 663, § 1311, 68 Stat. 800,

830 (1954) (amended 1959).

33 U.S.C. § 1232 (1982), amended by 33 U.S.C. § 1232(f) (Supp. I 1983).

Clayton Act, ch. 323, § 7, 38 Stat. 730, 731–32 (1914) (current version at 15

U.S.C. § 18).

(c)

State statutes

Follow the same formats and preferences as a U.S. statute (both in force and no longer in force),

except also include the year in parentheses. The state code should be in large and small caps.

ALASKA STAT. § 04.11.010 (1993).

Law of June 1, 1895, ch. 4322, § 23, 1895 Fla. Laws 3, 20–21 (repealed 1969).

(d)

Private law statutes

Cite to the session laws, or a secondary source. The citation should include a year. There should be a

nonbreaking space between “No.” and the private law number.

Priv. L. No. 94-75, 90 Stat. 2985 (1976).

12.3 Current Official and Unofficial Codes

For federal statutes, the official U.S. Code is preferred. The unofficial U.S. Code Annotated or

U.S. Code Service should only be used when the U.S. Code is unavailable.

The official and unofficial codes for states and D.C. can be found in Table 1 of The Bluebook.

(a)

Additional information

(1)

Use the statute’s name and original section number only if the statute is commonly cited

that way or if the information would otherwise aid in identification. Omit “The” as the

first word of a statute’s name. Include the year of the statute if it is in the official title. If

the statute has both an official name and a popular name, provide the official name

followed by the popular name in a parenthetical.

Labor Management Relations (Taft-Hartley) Act § 301(a), 29 U.S.C. § 185(a).

(2)

If a code is divided into separately sectioned or paragraphed titles, chapters, or

volumes, the title, chapter, or volume number must always be listed. Use the above

table to determine how to format these numbers of state codes.

25 U.S.C. § 1151

(3)

If a separately sectioned or paragraphed portion of a code is identified by subject matter

rather than by a title, volume, or chapter number, use that subject-matter name as part

of the code. The above table indicates which codes are subject-matter codes.

CAL. VEH. CODE § 11506 (West 2000).

(4)

Include the name of the publisher, editor, or compiler in the parenthetical phrase

containing the year of the code, unless a code is published, edited, compiled by, or

under the supervision of federal or state officials.

42 U.S.C.A. § 300a-7 (West 2001).

(5)

Cite materials in supplements (including pocket parts) according to Rule 3.1. 18

U.S.C. § 510(b) (Supp. I 1983).

12 U.S.C.S. § 1710 (LexisNexis 1993 & Supp. 2004).

(6)

If a code contains uncodified laws printed in a separate compilation, cite in the below

manner.

N.Y. UNCONSOL. LAW § 751 (McKinney 2000).

(7)

If the statute appears in the appendix to a code, then follow these rules:

(i)

If the statute is numbered and otherwise printed as if it were part of the code,

cite according to Rule 3.4.

50 U.S.C. app. § 5.

(ii)

If the statute is not printed as if it were part of the code, cite the session laws

and add an explanatory phrase indicating the statute is located in the code’s

appendix.

Act of Aug. 31, 1970, ch. 842, 1970 Mass. Acts 732, reprinted in MASS. GEN.

LAWS ANN. ch. 40 app. at 180 (West 1985).

(8)

If the statute appears in the notes section of the U.S. Code provision, cite according to

Rule 3.4. Information helpful in identifying the specific note should be added in a

parenthetical.

12 U.S.C. § 1821 note (Continuation of Health Plan Coverage in Cases of Failed

Financial Institutions).

(b)

Year of code

(1)

When citing a federal code, omit the date.

(2)

When citing a state code, include a parenthetical with (i) the year on the spine of the

volume, (ii) the year on the title page, or (iii) the latest copyright year, in that order of

preference. Use the range of years if applicable. If the volume has a replacement year

and an original year, use the replacement year.

(3)

When citing a provision that appears in a supplement or pocket part, use (i) the year that

appears on the title page of the supplement or pocket part or (ii) the latest copyright

year of the supplement or pocket part, in that order of preference. Place the year after the

name of the supplement or pocket part. Use the range of years if applicable.

(4)

When citing a provision that appears in both a main volume and supplemental or

pocket part, include both years pursuant to Rule 12.3(b)(2) and Rule 12.3(b)(3),

separated by an ampersand.

(5)

If a code is published in looseleaf form, use (i) the year that appears on the page on

which the provision is printed or (ii) the year that appears on the first page of the

subdivision in which the provision appears, in that order of preference.

(6)

Other dates, such as when the act became effective, may be included in parentheticals.

12.4 Session Laws

(a)

Name

(1)

Always include the public law or chapter number.

(2)

Include the name of the statute if available. Omit “The” as the first word of the name.

Use either the official name or the common name, whichever is more recognizable.

White-Slave Traffic Act, ch. 395, 36 Stat. 825 (1910) (codified as amended at 18

U.S.C. §§ 2421–2424).

(3)

If the name of the statute is not available, use (i) “Act of {date of enactment}” or

(ii) “Act of {date of effectiveness},” in that order of preference. Other identifying

information may be included in a parenthetical.

Act of Aug. 21, 1974, ch. 85, 1974 N.J. Laws 385 (providing unemployment

compensation for jurors).

(b)

Volume

(1)

Include the volume number (or, if none, the year) of the session laws, followed by the

abbreviated name of the session laws in ordinary roman typeface.

1978 Ark. Acts.

1935–1936 Ill. Laws 4th Spec. Sess.

(2)

The official federal session laws (Statutes at Large) are abbreviated “Stat.”

(3)

For the official state session laws, consult Table 1 of The Bluebook. Always include the

abbreviated state name before the session laws, even if not included in the official

session laws’ name.

(c)

Pages and sections

(1)

When citing an entire act, give the page the session laws begin.

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, Pub. L. No. 91-190, 83 Stat. 852

(1970).

(2)

When citing a section of an act, give the section or subsection, the page the session

laws begin, and the pincite to the page the act is located.

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, Pub. L. No. 91-190, § 102, 83

Stat. 852, 853–54 (1970).

(d)

Session laws amending prior acts

If the session law is divided into primary sections, and these sections, in turn, contain sections of the

amended act, then cite the bill’s sections by “sec.” and the amended act’s sections by §.

Labor-Management Relations Act, ch. 120, sec. 101, § 8(a)(3), 61 Stat. 136, 140–41 (1947).

(e)

Year or date

(1)

Include parenthetically (i) the year in which the statute was passed by the legislature or

(ii) the year the statute was effective, in that order of preference.

McCarran-Ferguson Act, ch. 20, 59 Stat. 33 (1945) (codified as amended at 15

U.S.C. §§ 1011–1015).

(2)

Omit the year, however, if already included in the name of the statute or session laws.

Securities Act of 1933, ch. 38, 48 Stat. 74 (codified as amended at 15 U.S.C.

§§ 77a–77aa).

(f)

Codification information

If a statute has been or will ultimately be codified and the code location is known, give that

information parenthetically.

Act of July 12, 1985, ch. 223, § 3, 1985 Cal. Legis. Serv. 239, 241 (West) (to be codified at

CAL. INS. CODE § 11589.5).

12.5 Electronic Media and Online Sources

(a)

Commercial electronic databases

(1)

When citing a code from an electronic database, include a parenthetical of the name of

the database and the information of the code’s currency from the database, in place of a

year parenthetical.

18 U.S.C.S. § 1956 (LEXIS through Pub. L. No. 113-108).

(2)

Include the name of the publisher, editor, or compiler unless the code is published,

edited, or compiled by, or under the supervision of, federal or state officials.

CAL. BUS. & PROF. CODE § 1670 (West, Westlaw through 1995 portion of 1995– 1996

Legis. Sess.).

(b)

Internet and online sources

When states and municipalities publish their official statutes or ordinances online, the online

source may be directly cited. Pursuant to Rule 18.2, cite official copies as if they were the

original code and unofficial copies according to the rules for online sources.

12.6 Other Secondary Sources

(a)

General rules

(1)

When citing a statute to any source other than a code, session laws, or an electronic

database, include the name of the act and public law or chapter number as if citing to

session laws.

(2)

When referring to a particular provision, give the section or subsection number after

the public law or chapter number.

(3)

If possible, cite federal statutes (particularly those enacted after 1974) to the United

States Code Congressional and Administrative News (U.S.C.C.A.N.), indicating the volume

number (and page number, if known) of the Statutes at Large where the statute will

appear (note that the page numbers in these two sources often differ).

Act of July 19, 1985, Pub. L. No. 99-68, 1985 U.S.C.C.A.N. (99 Stat.) 166.

(4)

When citing an entire act, include the page on which the act begins.

Act of July 9, 1985, Pub. L. No. 99-61, § 110, 1985 U.S.C.C.A.N. (99 Stat.) 113,

115 (to be codified at 31 U.S.C. § 5112).

(5)

When citing part of an act, give both the page on which the act begins and the pages

on which the cited material appears.

(6)

If the statute has been or will ultimately be codified and the code location is known,

give that information parenthetically.

(b)

Secondary rules

(1)

Cite other secondary sources according to (i) Rule 19 or (ii) Rule 16, in that order of

preference. Give the date or year appropriate for the cited source. If the name of a

statute cited to a service includes the year, and the service was published in that year, the

year of the service may be omitted. If the future location of the act in either a code or

session laws is known, include that information parenthetically.

Presidential and Executive Office Accountability Act of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-

331, [1 Lab. Rel.] Lab. L. Rep. (CCH) ¶ 660 (1997).

(2)

If a recent statute has not yet been published in any source, include only (i) the name of

the act; (ii) the public law or chapter number; (iii) the section or subsection number if

referring to only part of the statute; (iv) the full date of enactment (or, if none, the date

of approval by the executive or effective date); and (v) the future location, if known, in a

code or session laws.

Alabama Corporate Income Tax Reform Act, No. 85-515 (May 8, 1985).

12.8 Explanatory Parenthetical Phrases

Explanatory parenthetical phrases are used to show the code location of statutes cited to session

laws or secondary sources; to identify useful dates, such as the effective date of a statute; and to

indicate the invalidation, repeal, amendment, or prior history of a statute. In addition, explanatory

parenthetical phrases may be used to give any other relevant information about a statute.

Generally, follow Rule 1.5.

12.9 Special Citation Forms

(a)

Internal Revenue Code

(1)

As stated above, cite to “I.R.C.” instead of “26 U.S.C.”

(2)

Citations to the Internal Revenue Code as it appears in an unofficial code should

include a parenthetical with the publisher’s name and the year of the version cited.

(b)

Ordinances

(1)

Cite ordinances analogously to statutes. Always include the name of the political

subdivision (such as a city or county) and the abbreviated state name at the beginning of

the citation.

(2)

If the ordinance is codified, give the name of the code, the section or other

subdivision, and the year of the code. Print the political subdivision, state, and code

names in large and small capitals.

FORT WORTH, TEX., REV. ORDINANCES ch. 34, art. I, § 15 (1950).

(3)

If the ordinance is uncodified, include its number (or, if none, its name) and a

parenthetical with the exact date of adoption. Print the political subdivision, state, and

ordinance name in ordinary roman type.

San Jose, Cal., Ordinance 16,043 (Jan. 17, 1972).

(c)

Rules of evidence and procedure

(1)

Cite the current or uniform rules of evidence or procedure in large and small capitals,

without any date, as the following:

Federal Rules of Civil Procedure

FED. R. CIV. P. {rule number}

Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure

FED. R. CRIM. P. {rule number}

Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure

FED. R. APP. P. {rule number}

Circuit Rules

{CIRCUIT NUMBER} CIR. R. {rule

number}

Supreme Court Rules

SUP. CT. R. {rule number}

Federal Rules of Evidence

FED. R. EVID. {rule number}

Uniform Rules of Evidence

UNIF. R EVID. {rule number}

(2)

If citing a rule no longer in effect, include the most recent official source in which the

rule appears and a parenthetical indicating the date of repeal.

(d)

Model codes, principles, restatements, standards, sentencing guidelines, and uniform acts

(1)

Cite model codes, principles, restatements, standards, sentencing guidelines, uniform acts,

and similar materials in large and small capitals, by section, rule, or other relevant

subdivision. Abbreviate the names according to Rule 6.1 and the authors according to

Rule 15.1. Always indicate if the cited version has been withdrawn or amended.

PRINCIPLES OF THE LAW OF FAMILY DISSOLUTION: ANALYSIS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS § 2.07 (AM. LAW INST. 2002).

(i)

For restatements, give the year in which the principle or restatement was

published.

(ii)

For model codes, principles, standards, and sentencing guidelines, include the

year of the last amendment, even when citing a portion not amended at that time.

(2)

When citing to a uniform act itself, and not as the law of a particular state, cite it as a

separate code. Indicate the author’s name parenthetically. Abbreviate the authors

according to Rule 15.1.

U.C.C. § 2-314 (AM. LAW INST. & UNIF. LAW COMM’N 1977).

(3)

When citing a uniform act to the Uniform Laws Annotated (U.L.A.), provide the title of

the act, the section number, the year of amendment or repeal (if any), the appropriate

volume of the U.L.A., the page number on which the relevant section appears, and the

year of publication. Use the year in which the uniform act was last amended, even if the

section referred to was not amended at that time. Indicate if a uniform act or section

has been withdrawn, superseded, or amended.

UNIF. ADOPTION ACT § 10, 9 U.L.A. 45 (1988).

UNIF. PROBATE CODE § 2-706 (amended 2020), 8 pt. 1 U.L.A. 291 (2013).

(4)

When citing to the law of a particular state, cite as a separate code.

OKLA. STAT. tit. 12A, § 2-314 (2004).

(5)

If a code, principle, restatement, or set of standards or guidelines is a tentative or

proposed draft, indicate that fact parenthetically as it appears on the publication and

give the draft number (if available) and the year of the draft. Similarly, when citing a

draft of a uniform act, indicate the fact parenthetically and give the date of the draft.

MODEL LAND DEV. CODE § 2-402(2) (AM. LAW INST., Proposed Official Draft

1975).

ELEC. WILLS ACT (UNIF. L. COMM’N, Draft Jan. 22, 2019).

(6)

If a restatement contains a subtitle, retain the subtitle in the citation.

RESTATEMENT (THIRD) OF PROP.: WILLS AND DONATIVE TRANSFERS § 2.1 (AM.

LAW INST. 1999).

(7)

Use the following templates for the Generally Accepted Auditing Standards and

Generally Accepted Accounting Principles as follows:

CODIFICATION OF ACCOUNTING STANDARDS & PROCS., Statement on Auditing

Standards No. 1, § 150 (AM. INST. OF CERTIFIED PUB. ACCTS. 1972).

RSCH. AND DEV. ARRANGEMENTS, Statement of Fin. Acct. Standards No. 68, § 32 (FIN.

ACCT. STANDARDS BD. 1982).

(8)

Comments, notes, and other addenda should be cited according to Rule 3.4.

(9)

Use the following templates for application notes, background commentary,

introductory commentary, and appendices to sentencing guidelines:

U.S. SENT’G GUIDELINES MANUAL § 3D1.4 cmt. n.1 (U.S. SENT’G COMM’N 2004).

U.S. SENT’G GUIDELINES MANUAL § 2D1.2 cmt. background (U.S. SENT’G

COMM’N 2004).

U.S. SENT’G GUIDELINES MANUAL ch. 3, pt. D, introductory cmt. (U.S. SENT’G

COMM’N 2004).

U.S. SENT’G GUIDELINES MANUAL app. C (U.S. SENT’G COMM’N 2004).

(e)

ABA Code of Professional Responsibility and ABA opinions on ethics

(1)

Cite the old Model Code of Professional Responsibility and the new Model Rules of Professional

Conduct according to Rule 12.9(d).

(2)

Cite ethical considerations and disciplinary rules as follows:

Model Code of Professional Responsibility

Ethical Considerations

MODEL CODE OF PRO. RESP. EC

{RULE NUMBER} (AM. BAR. ASS’N

1980).

Model Code of Professional Responsibility

Disciplinary Rules

MODEL CODE OF PRO. RESP. DR

{RULE NUMBER} (AM. BAR. ASS’N

1980).

(3)

Cite notes or other commentary according to Rule 3.4.

(4)

Cite formal and informal opinions of the Committee on Ethics and Professional

Responsibility (or the older Committees on Professional Ethics (1958–1971) and on

Professional Ethics and Grievances (1919–1958)) by issuing body, opinion number,

and year.

ABA Comm. on Pro. Ethics & Grievances, Formal Op. 35 (1931).

12.10 Short Forms for Statutes

Use either of the following forms, according to the source used in the initial reference. Do not use

a cross-reference to the previous full citation, and do not use “id.”.

(a)

Citation to the U.S. Code or to a state code

{title or volume} {code} {subdivision}

42 U.S.C. § 1988.

(b)

Citation to an original act

{shortened name of act} {subdivision}, {volume} {source} at {pincite}

National Environmental Policy Act § 201, 83 Stat. at 854.

Rule 13: Legislative Materials

When citing bills and resolutions; committee hearings; reports, documents, and committee prints; or

separately bound legislative history include the title (if relevant), the abbreviated name of the house,

the number of the Congress, the number assigned to the material, and the year of publication. Do

not do this for debates. State legislative materials are cited similarly except when indicated otherwise.

In addition, include parenthetically the session number for House and Senate documents published

before the 60th Congress (1907), House Reports published before the 47th Congress (1881), and

Senate Reports published before the 40th Congress (1867). For House and Senate materials

published after these dates, the session number can be inferred from the year of publication: First

sessions always fall in odd-numbered years, while second sessions always fall in even-numbered

years. On rare occasions, Congress holds a third session. When citing materials produced during a

third session, provide this information parenthetically.

13.1 Basic Citation Form

Use the following examples as templates for all legislative materials. Refer to Rules 13.2–.8 for

more detailed guidance.

Federal Bill (unenacted)

Privacy Protection Act of 1998, H.R. 3224,

105th Cong. § 2(a) (1998).

H.R. 119, 54th Cong. (1st Sess. 1896).

Federal Resolution (unenacted)

H.R.J. Res. 79, 106th Cong. (1999).

State Bill

H.R. 124, 179th Leg., 1st Spec. Sess. (Pa.

1995).

State Resolution

S.J. Res. 836, 118th Leg., 3d Spec. Sess. (Me.

1999).

Committee Hearing

Background and History of Impeachment: Hearing

Before the Subcomm. on the Constitution of the H.

Comm. on the Judiciary, 105th Cong. 22–23

(1998) (statement of Rep. Hutchinson,

Member, H. Comm. on the Judiciary).

Federal Report

H.R. REP. NO. 101-524, at 10 (1990),

reprinted in 1990 U.S.C.C.A.N. 1448, 1451.

Federal Document

H.R. DOC. NO. 102-399, at 3 (1992).

Committee Print

STAFF OF H. COMM. ON THE JUDICIARY, 93D

CONG., CONSTITUTIONAL GROUNDS FOR

PRESIDENTIAL IMPEACHMENT 38 (Comm.

Print 1974).

Congressional Debate

145 CONG. REC. H1817 (daily ed. Apr. 12,

1999) (statement of Rep. Pease).

Source Reprinted in Separately Bound

Legislative History

S. COMM. ON LABOR AND PUB. WELFARE,

LABOR-MANAGEMENT REPORTING AND

DISCLOSURE ACT OF 1959, S. Rep. No. 86-

187, at 4 (1959), reprinted in 1959

U.S.C.C.A.N. 2318, 2320, and in 1 NLRB,

LEGISLATIVE HISTORY OF THE LABOR-

MANAGEMENT REPORTING AND

DISCLOSURE ACT OF 1959, at 397, 400 (1959).

13.2 Bills and Resolutions

(a)

Unenacted federal bills and resolutions

(1)

Include the name of the bill (if relevant), the abbreviated name of the house, the

number of the bill, the number of the Congress, the section (if any), and a

parenthetical with the year of publication.

(2)

A parenthetical indicating the date and stage of the bill may be provided in order to

distinguish among multiple versions of the same bill in the same Congress.

(3)

Subcommittee and committee names may be abbreviated according to other

abbreviation tables located throughout this guide.

(4)

Use the following abbreviations for resolutions. A nonbreaking space should be used

between “Res.” and the resolution number.

House Resolution

H.R. Res.

Senate Resolution

S. Res.

House Concurrent Resolution

H.R. Con. Res.

Senate Concurrent Resolution

S. Con. Res.

House Joint Resolution

H.R.J. Res.

Senate Joint Resolution

S.J. Res.

Senate Executive Resolution

S. Exec. Res.

(5)

A parallel citation to a published committee hearing, a legislative report, or the

Congressional Record may also be provided if it would assist the reader in locating the bill.

(b)

Enacted federal bills and resolutions

(1)

Since enacted bills are statutes, only cite to these when being used for legislative

history, in which case they are cited the same as if they were unenacted. Unless

otherwise clear in context, include “enacted” parenthetically.

(2)

A parallel citation to the Congressional Record for simple resolutions or to the

Statutes at Large for concurrent resolutions may be provided. An “enacted”

parenthetical is not necessary when a parallel citation to Stat. is given.

(c)

State bills and resolutions

(1)

Include the name of the legislative body, the number of the bill or resolution, the

number of the legislative body (or, if not numbered, the year of the body), the number

or designation of the legislative session, and a parenthetical of the abbreviated state

name and the year of enactment (if applicable) or the year of publication.

(2)

A parallel citation to state session laws may be provided.

13.3 Hearings

(a)

Federal committee hearings

Include, if available, the following: the entire subject matter title as it appears on the cover, the bill

number, the subcommittee number, the committee name, the number of Congress, the page

number of the particular material being cited, and a parenthetical with the year of publication.

(b)

State committee hearings

Follow the same form as federal committee hearings but include the number of the legislative session.

13.4 Reports, Documents, and Committee Prints

(a)

Numbered federal reports and documents

(1)

Include the name of the house, the number of the Congress connected by a hyphen to

the number of the report, the part or page number on which material being cited

appears, and year of publication. Use large and small caps for the house, abbreviation of

report, and abbreviation of number.

(2)

Cite conference reports the same way, but add a parenthetical noting “Conf. Rep.”

(3)

Cite documents the same way, using the following abbreviations:

House Document

H.R. Doc. No.

Senate Document

S. Doc. No.

House Miscellaneous Document

H.R. Misc. Doc. No.

(4)

For international agreements to which the United States is a party, use the following

abbreviations:

Senate Executive Document

S. EXEC. DOC. NO.

Senate Treaty Document

S. TREATY DOC. NO.

(5)

When possible (particularly for documents after 1974), give a parallel citation to the

United States Code Congressional and Administrative News.

S. REP. NO. 95-797, at 4 (1978), as reprinted in 1978 U.S.C.C.A.N. 9260, 9263.

(b)

Titles and authors

A title may be included, but if it is, then the author must also be included.

(c)

Unnumbered federal documents and committee prints

(1)

Cite committee prints and unnumbered documents as authors.

(2)

Include the number of Congress as part of the author’s name.

(d)

Federal legislative agency reports

(1)

Cite legislative reports, like those by the Congressional Research Service or the

Government Accountability Office, as authors.

(2)

Include the report number as part of the title.

(e)

Federal legislative journals

Cite congressional journals as follows:

S. JOURNAL, 24th Cong., 2d Sess. 123–24 (1836).

(f)

State materials

(1)

Include the name of the legislative body, the number of the legislative body connected

by a hyphen to the number of the report or document, the number of the legislative

session, the part or page number on which the material being cited appears, and a

parenthetical with the year of publication. Unless it is clear from the rest of the citation,

include the abbreviated state before the year.

(2)

A title may be included, but if it is, then the author must also be included.

13.5 Debates

(a)

Debates after 1873

(1)

Use the permanent edition of Congressional Record, unless unavailable, in which case

use the daily edition.

(2)

If the debate occurred in a different year from its publication in the Congressional

Record, cite the year in which the debate was published.

(b)

Debates through 1873

(1)

Use the following models:

1837–1873

CONG. GLOBE, 36th Cong., 1st Sess. 1672

(1860).

1824–1837

10 REG. DEB. 3472 (1834).

1789–1824

38 ANNALS OF CONG. 624 (1822).

(2)

For volume one of the Annals of Congress include a parenthetical with the name(s) of the

editor(s) and year.

13.7 Electronic Media and Online Sources

(a)

Commercial electronic databases

Include the electronic database identifier. If the name of the database is not clear from the

identifier, include the name in a parenthetical.

(b)

Internet and online sources

If a print source is unavailable or an electronic source is designated the official source, cite to the

electronic source (with Rule 18’s discussion of authentication and preferred document formats in

mind) and append the Perma link.

13.8 Short Forms for Legislative Materials

(a)

General Rules

Use the table below for main text, footnotes, and short citations. Additionally, use id. for

legislative materials.

Full Citation

Main or Footnote

Text

Short Citation

Federal Bill

(unenacted)

H.R. 3055, 94th

Cong. (1976)

House Bill 3055

H.R. 3055

State Resolution

S. Res. 20, 37th Leg.,

2d Sess. (Okla. 1979)

Oklahoma Senate

Resolution 20

Okla. S. Res. 20

Federal Report

H.R. REP. NO. 92-98

(1971)

House Report 98

H.R. REP. NO. 92-98

Federal Document

H.R. DOC. NO. 94-

208 (1975)

House Document 208

H.R. DOC. NO. 94-

208

(b)

Electronic sources

(1)

For electronic databases, use the unique electronic database identifier to form the

short citation.

(2)

For materials that are only online, use the short citation appropriate for the source.

Omit the URL.

13.9 Common Abbreviations

Annals

Annual

Ann.

Assembly[man, woman, member]

Assemb.

Bill

Committee

Comm.

Concurrent

Con.

Conference

Conf.

Congress[ional]

Cong.

Debate

Deb.

Delegate

Del.

Document[s]

Doc.

Executive

Exec.

Federal

Fed.

House

House of Delegates

H.D.

House of Representatives

H.R.

Joint

Legislat[ion, ive]

Legis.

Legislature

Leg.

Miscellaneous

Misc.

Number

No.

Order

Record

Rec.

Reg.

Regular

Reg.

Report

Rep.

Representative

Rep.

Resolution

Res.

Senate

Senator

Sen.

Service

Serv.

Session

Sess.

Special

Spec.

Subcommittee

Subcomm.

Rule 14: Administrative and Executive Materials

14.1 Basic Citation Form

Federal Regulations Cited to the Code of

Federal Regulations

FTC Credit Practices Rules, 16 C.F.R.

§ 444.1 (2019).

Federal Regulations Cited to the Federal

Importation of Fruits and Vegetables, 60 Fed.

Reg. 50,379 (Sept. 29, 1995) (to be codified

at 7 C.F.R. pt. 300).

Administrative Adjudication

Reichhold Chems., Inc., 91 F.T.C. 246

(1978).

Arbitration

Charles B. Ortmeyer, 23 Indus. Arb. 272

(1980) (Stern, Arb.).

14.2 Rules, Regulations, and Other Publications

(a)

Final rules and regulations

(1)

When possible, cite the Code of Federal Regulations including the title, section, and a

parenthetical with the year of the most recent edition, in the following template:

{C.F.R. title number} C.F.R. § {section number} ({year of edition}).

Additionally, the following rules apply:

(i)

Include the name of the rule or regulation only if the rule or regulation is

commonly cited that way or the information would otherwise aid in

identification.

(ii)

Include the name of the issuing body if it would be helpful.

(iii)

Certain titles of the Code of Federal Regulations have unique citations:

(A)

For Title 26, the Treasury Regulations, cite as follows:

Treas. Reg. § {section number} ({year}).

(B)

For Title 48, the Federal Acquisition Regulations, cite as: FAR

{section number} ({year}).

(2)

For rules not yet codified in the Code of Federal Regulations, cite to the Federal Register,

including the commonly used name, the volume of the register, the page number on

which the regulation begins, a parenthetical listing the full date, and—if available—a

parenthetical noting when the regulation will be codified. Note that prohibitively long

names may be shortened. Use the following template:

{regulation name}, {volume number} Fed. Reg. {first page}, {pincite} ({date}) (to

be codified at {C.F.R. citation}).

(b)

Proposed rules, other notices, and comments

(1)

Follow the format for Rule 14.2(a)(2) but include “proposed” before the date.

(2)

Cite any nonadjudicative administrative notice pursuant to Rule 14.2(a)(2). The name

used may be a common name.

(3)

If the rules or announcements do not appear in either the Code of Federal Regulations or the

Federal Register, cite a service according to Rule 19, the original form of issuance, or an

agency governmental website according to Rule 18.2.

(4)

When citing comments, include the name of the commenter and the proposed rule to

which the comment pertains, shorten any prohibitively long titles, and include a Perma

link archiving the government website.

(c)

Regular reports

Cite the same as periodicals in Rule 16, abbreviating the agency and periodical names pursuant to

rules throughout this guide.

(d)

Other publications

(1)

Generally, cite as a congressional document pursuant to Rule 13.4 if issued as such;

otherwise cite pursuant to Rule 15.

(2)

When citing an opinion letter, cite pursuant to Rule 15 but with ordinary roman type,

including the date of publication and the subject matter, if available.

14.3 Administrative Adjudications and Arbitrations

(a)

Names

(1)

For administrative adjudications, cite the reported name of the first-listed private party

or by the official subject-matter title, and omit any procedural phrases. For subject-

matter titles that indicate the nature and stage of the adjudicatory proceeding, shorten

the title to not include this, and instead include a parenthetical with the date of the

current nature or stage preceded by a phrase such as “notice,” “initiation,” “prelim.

neg.,” “determination,” or something more detailed.

(2)

For arbitrations, cite as court cases if adversarial and like administrative adjudications if

not. Always include the arbitrator’s name in a separate parenthetical after the date.

(b)

Which source to cite

(1)

Cite the official reporter of the agency if the opinion appears therein.

(2)

If the opinion is not in the official reporter, cite the official release or the slip opinion,

providing the full date, any helpful publication number, and the number of the case or

investigation.

(i)

If the opinion will later be published in an official bound volume, provide the

volume number. If available, also cite the initial page number.

(ii)

When possible, append a parallel citation to (A) an unofficial reporter,

(B) service, or (C) other source, in that order of preference.

(3)

When only available in a service or electronic database, cite according to Rule 19 or Rule

18.2, respectively.

(c)

Issuing agency

If the name of the issuing agency is not obvious from the citation, include the name in the same

parenthetical as the date, directly before the date and abbreviated according to the rules

throughout this guide.

14.4 Commercial Electronic Databases

Include the electronic database identifier. If the name of the database is not clear from the

identifier, include the name in a parenthetical.

14.5 Short Forms for Regulations

(a)

General rules

Use the table below for main text, footnotes, and short citations. Additionally, “id.” may not be used

for the Code of Federal Regulations but may be used for the Federal Register.

Full Citation

Main or Footnote

Text

Short Citation

Code of Federal

Regulations

FTC Credit Practices

Rule, 16 C.F.R.

§ 441.1 (2014)

16 C.F.R. § 444.1

Federal Register

Importation of Fruits

and Vegetables, 60

Fed. Reg. 50,379,

50,381 (Sept. 29

1995) (to be codified

at 7 C.F.R. pt. 300)

Importation of Fruits

and Vegetables

Importation of Fruits

and Vegetables, 60

Fed. Reg. at 50,381

(b)

Electronic Sources

Refer to Rule 18.8.

Rule 15: Books, Reports, and Other Nonperiodic Materials

In general, cite to all books, reports, and other nonperiodic materials as follows:

{AUTHOR}, {TITLE} {pincite} ({editor} eds., {edition} {year of publication}).

15.1 Author

On first mention, include the author’s full name, including JR., III, etc. following a comma but

excluding any titles (e.g., Dr., Prof., etc.).

When citing a single volume of a multivolume work, list only the authors of the volume being cited.

(a)

Two authors

List the authors in the order they appear on the title page, separated by an ampersand, unless

separated by a specific phrase (such as “with” or “as told by”) on the title page, in which case, use

that phrase.

(b)

More than two authors

(1) For works with two to ten authors, list every author on first mention. Separate the names

with commas, except the last name which should be set off by an ampersand.

(2) For works with eleven or more authors, list the first author followed by “ET AL.”

(3) Note that this rule does not apply to any other people involved with publication, such as

editors and translators. If there are more than two of anyone other than the author, list

the first person followed by “et al.” Additionally, the use of “et al.” is appropriate to use

for authors in short citation forms.

(c)

Institutional authors

(1) Cite the institution as if the author.

CITY OF NEW HAVEN, RECYCLE NOW NEW HAVEN (1991).

(2) If an individual author is credited on behalf of the institution, list the author first, and

then the institution separated by a comma, and only use subdivisions if particularly

relevant.

JUDITH A. LHAMON, NAT’L ASS’N FOR LAW PLACEMENT, A FAIR SHAKE: LAWFUL AND

EFFECTIVE INTERVIEWING 3 (1987).

(3) When no individual author is credited, list the smallest subdivision first, and then the

institution separated by a comma.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS CTR., STATE CRIME COMM’N, CRIME IN GEORGIA 41 (1980).

(d)

Abbreviations

(1) Abbreviate an institutional author only when it would be unambiguous.

(2) “United States” should be abbreviated “U.S.” when used as an adjective.

(3) Omit “Inc.,” “Ltd.,” and similar words if the author already includes “Ass’n,”

“Bros.,” “Co.,” “Corp.,” or a similar word indicating that the institution is a business.

15.2 Editor or Translator

(a)

Basic format

(1)

Always give the full name of the editor if available, followed by a comma and “ed.”

(2)

If a translated work, always give the full name of the translator, followed by a comma and

“trans.” after the editor.

KARL MARX & FREDERICH ENGELS, THE COMMUNIST MANIFESTO (Joseph Katz

ed., Samuel Moore trans., Washington Square Press 1964) (1848).

(b)

Institutional editors

If the editor is an institution, substitute the abbreviated name of the institution for an individual

editor.

(c)

No Named Parties

If a work has no editor, translator, or institutional editor, the abbreviated name of the publisher

may be listed instead.

15.3 Title

(a) In general

(1) Cite the title as it appears on the cover page, capitalizing according to Rule 8 for

nontranslated works and Rule 20.2 for translated works.

(2) Include a subtitle only when particularly relevant.

(3) Do not abbreviate any words or omit articles.

(b) Multivolume works

(1) When citing a single work in a multivolume work, include only the main title of the

volume cited.

(2) If the title ends with a number or something that could make the pages cited

confusing, then place a comma followed by the word “at” before the pincite.

J.A.S. GRENVILLE, THE MAJOR INTERNATIONAL TREATIES, 1914–1973, at 114–15

(1974).

15.4 Edition, Publisher, and Date

(a)

Editions

(1)

In general, always cite the latest edition of the work that supports the point, unless an

earlier edition would be particularly relevant or persuasive.

(2)

When citing to a work published in only a single edition volume, follow these rules:

(i)

Indicate the year in parentheses, preferably using the year of the edition and

not printing.

(ii)

If the printing differs in a relevant respect, list the printing designation (e.g.,

1st, 2nd, etc.), followed by “prtg.” and the year.

(iii)

Include the parenthetical with the year even if the title also includes the year.

(3)

When citing to a work published in multiple editions, indicate the edition designation

and year, using the publisher’s terminology and the publishing abbreviations listed

below.

abridge[d, ment]

abr.

annotated

ann.

anonymous

anon.

circa

compil[ation, ed]

comp.

copy.

draft

drft.

edit[ion, or]

ed.

manuscript

ms.

mimeograph

mimeo.

new series

n.s.

no date

n.d.

no place

n.p.

no publisher

n. pub.

offprint

offprt.

old series

o.s.

permanent

perm.

photoduplicated reprint

photo. reprt.

printing

prtg.

replacement

repl.

reprint

reprt.

revis[ed, ion]

rev.

special

spec.

temporary

temp.

tentative

tent.

translat[ion, or]

trans.

unabridged

unabr.

volume

vol.

(4)

When citing to a work published by someone other than the original publisher,

indicate (if applicable) the editor, translator, publisher, edition cited if not the first,

and date of publication, in that order. Unless the work is updated regularly, indicate

the original date of publication in a second parenthetical.

CHARLES DICKENS, BLEAK HOUSE 49–55 (Norman Page ed., Penguin Books

1971) (1853).

(b)

Pre-1900 works

(1)

Cite to a scholarly modern edition pursuant to Rule 15.4(a).

(2)

If no scholarly modern edition is available, cite to the first edition if possible, including

a parenthetical indicating the place of publication and publisher, separated by a comma.

1 JAMES FITZJAMES STEPHEN, A HISTORY OF THE CRIMINAL LAW OF ENGLAND

156–57 (London, MacMillan & Co. 1883).

(i)

If the place of publication is unavailable, replace it with “n.p.”

(ii)

If the date of publication is unavailable, replace it with “n.d.”

(c)

Supplements

Cite pocket parts and bound supplements pursuant to Rule 3.1.

15.5 Shorter Works in Collection

(a)

Essays and articles

(1)

When citing a single piece within a collection of works by various authors, use the

following template:

{author}, {shorter work}, in {volume number} {LONGER WORK} {1st page of

shorter work}, {pincite} ({editor et al.} ed. {year}).

(2)

When citing a single piece within a collection of works by the same author, follow the

same template as 15.5(a)(1), but use large and small capitals for the author:

{AUTHOR}, {shorter work}, in {volume number} {LONGER WORK} {1st page of

shorter work}, {pincite} ({editor et al.} ed. {year}).

(b)

Letters, speeches, manuscripts, diaries, debates, newspaper articles, tracts, and other

materials

(1)

For documents already published, cite the piece as best as possible followed by

reprinted in with the citation to the volume being reference.

MARQUIS DE CONDORCET, ESSAY ON THE APPLICATION OF MATHEMATICS TO THE

THEORY OF DECISION-MAKING (1785), reprinted in CONDORCET: SELECTED

WRITINGS 33, 48–49 (Keith M. Baker ed., 1976).

(2)

For documents never published, follow Rule 15.5(a)(1), with a parenthetical of the

date of the particular document if available included at the end.

Letter from Virginia Woolf to Vita Sackville-West (Dec. 22, 1925), in 3 THE LETTERS

OF VIRGINIA WOOLF, 1923–1928, 223, 224 (Nigel Nicolson & Joanne Trautmann eds.,

1st Am. ed. 1978) (1977).

15.6 Prefaces, Forwards, Introductions, and Epilogues

(a)

Written by author

When the preface, forward, introduction, or epilogue is written by the same author as the rest of the

book, cite the book normally. If the pincite might be confused with the title of the book, follow the

title with a comma and “at.”

JOHN HART ELY, DEMOCRACY AND DISTRUST, at vii (1980).

(b)

Written by someone else

When the preface, forward, introduction, or epilogue is written by someone else, use the

following template:

{preface author}, Preface to {AUTHOR}, {TITLE}, at {pincite} ({editor et al.} {year}) ({year

of preface}).

Henry M. Hart & Herbert Wechsler, Preface to the First Edition of PAUL M. BATOR, DANIEL J.

MELTZER, PAUL J. MISHKIN & DAVID L. SHAPIRO, HART AND WECHSLER’S THE FEDERAL

COURTS AND THE FEDERAL SYSTEM, at xxvii, xxx (3d ed. 1988).

15.7 Serial Number

(a)

Series issued by author

When citing a work in which the series number is issued by the author, include the serial number as

part of the title.

WOMEN’S BUREAU, U.S. DEP’T OF LAB., LEAFLET NO. 55, A WORKING WOMAN’S GUIDE TO

HER JOB RIGHTS 4 (1978).

(b)

Series issued by one other than author

When citing a work in which the series number is issued by the someone other than the author,

indicate the issuer and the series number in the parenthetical before the date and separated from the

date by a comma.

Anne C. Vladeck, Counseling a Plaintiff During Litigation, in EMPLOYMENT LITIGATION 1990, at 77,

80–82 (PLI Litig. & Admin. Prac., Course Handbook Ser. No. 386, 1990).

15.8 Special Citation Forms

(a)

Frequently cited works

The following works require special citation styles:

(1)

Noscitur a sociis, BALLENTINE’S LAW DICTIONARY (3d ed. 1969).

(2)

Good-Faith Bargaining, BLACK’S LAW DICTIONARY (9th ed. 2009). (3) 88

C.J.S. Trial § 192 (1955).

(4) 17 AM. JUR. 2D Contracts § 74 (1964).

(b)

Other named works

(1)

For the Federalist papers, use the following rules:

(i)

When citing to an entire paper, include a parenthetical with the author’s full

name and do not indicate an edition. If citing multiple papers, group by author.

THE FEDERALIST NO. 78 (Alexander Hamilton)

THE FEDERALIST NOS. 23, 78 (Alexander Hamilton), NOS. 10, 51 (James

Madison)

(ii)

When citing to a particular page of a Federalist paper, list the usual

publication information.

THE FEDERALIST NO. 5, at 53 (John Jay) (Clinton Rossiter ed., 1961).

(2)

When citing the Manual for Complex Litigation, use the following rules:

(i)

When citing to an edition prepared by the Federal Judicial Center, use the

following:

MANUAL FOR COMPLEX LITIGATION (Third) § 33.2 (1995).

MANUAL FOR COMPLEX LITIGATION § 2.10 (5th ed. 1982).

(ii)

When citing an edition not prepared by the Federal Judicial Center, identify

the source and publication date of the edition.

MANUAL FOR COMPLEX LITIGATION § 4.52 (1982) (supplement to CHARLES

ALAN WRIGHT & ARTHUR R. MILLER, FEDERAL PRACTICE AND PROCEDURE

(1969–1985)).

(3)

When citing to the Bible, use the following template, in which the version is optional:

{book} {chapter}:{verse} ({version}).

(4)

When citing to Shakespeare, cite the act, scene, and line, as follows:

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE, {PLAY} act. {number}, sc. {number}, l. {number}.

(5)

When citing to The Bluebook, use the two following examples:

THE BLUEBOOK: A UNIFORM SYSTEM OF CITATION R. 15.8(c)(v), at 154

(Columbia L. Rev. Ass’n et al. eds., 21st ed. 2020).

THE BLUEBOOK: A UNIFORM SYSTEM OF CITATION 293 tbl.T.10 (Columbia L.

Rev. Ass’n et al. eds., 16th ed. 9th prtg. 1999).

15.9 Electronic Media and Online Sources

(a)

Commercial electronic databases

Cite according to Rule 15 generally, but also include the electronic database identifier or, if no identifier

is available, just a citation to the database.

ABBEY G. HAIRSTON, LEAVE AND DISABILITY COORDINATION HANDBOOK ¶ 110 (2009),

Westlaw LDCHBK.

(b)

Internet and online sources

Do not treat books found online as interchangeable with hard copies unless the online source is

an exact copy. Cite online books pursuant to Rule 18.2.

(c)

Electronic books

Do not treat electronic books (ebooks) as interchangeable with hard copies and only cite ebooks if it is

the only method of obtaining the book. Place a parenthetical stating “ebook” after the date. If the

ebook uses location numbers instead of page numbers, place “loc.” and a nonbreaking space before the

pincite.

RONALD COLLINS & DAVID SKOVER, WHEN MONEY SPEAKS loc. 2992 (2014) (ebook).

15.10 Short Citation Forms

(a)

In general

After a book is fully cited once, use id. or supra, pursuant to Rule 4.

(b)

Short citations for works in collection

(1)

Use id. if citing to the same shorter work in the collection but not if citing to a

different shorter work in the collection.

(2)

Use supra to refer to the collection but use the title of the collection rather than the

author, no matter if the collection has one or multiple authors.

(3)

Use supra to refer to the shorter work and use the author’s last name or, if there is no

author, the title of the shorter work.

(c)

Online materials

Cite according to normal rules appropriate to the source.

Rule 16: Periodic Materials

16.1 Basic Citation Forms

Articles in consecutively paginated journals (works paginated by volume)—like law reviews—

should be cited as follows:

{author}, {title}, {volume number} {PERIODICAL} {1st page}, {pincite} ({date})

({parenthetical(s)}).

Genevieve Lakier, The First Amendment’s Real Lochner Problem, 87 U. CHI. L. REV. 1241, 1271

(2020) (quotation marks omitted).

Articles in nonconsecutively paginated journals (works paginated by issue)—and in magazines,

newspapers, and any other publication where there are no volume numbers and the first page of

every issue is 1—should be cited as follows:

{author}, {title}, {PUBLICATION}, {month} {date}, {year}, at {1st page}, {pincite}.

Albert Gore, Jr., Stability, NEW REPUBLIC, Nov. 17, 1986, at 19, 20.

Refer to Rules 16.6–.8 for various special forms; otherwise, use the forms given here for full

citations. Use the forms in Rule 16.9 for short citations.

Capitalize the title of a periodical according to Rule 8(a); abbreviate the name of a periodical

according to Table 6 and Table 10 in Appendix 3 of this manual.

16.2 Author

Follow Rule 15.1 (Book Authors), but print in ordinary roman type, not small caps.

16.3 Title

Never shorten a periodical title or abbreviate words on first reference. Capitalize according to Rule 8.

Use italics.

When words in a periodical title would be italicized in the main text under Rule 2.2, use “double

italics”—that is, do not italicize that part of the title.

16.4 Consecutively Paginated Journals

Refer to the model form in Rule 16.1.

When there is no volume number, use the year of publication as the volume number. The date

parenthetical may be omitted.

Cass R. Sunstein, Minimalism at War, 2004 SUP. CT. REV. 47, 51.

16.5 Nonconsecutively Paginated Journals and Magazines

Refer to the model form in Rule 16.1.

If no date is available, provide the issue number (the abbreviation “no.” followed by a

nonbreaking space and the number) in its place and, if available, the year and month of

Charles E. Mueller, The American Who Wants to Give Away His Country but Doesn’t

Know That’s What He’s Voting for, 34 ANTITRUST L. & ECON. REV., no. 1, 2008, at 1, 7.

16.6 Newspapers

Cite as a nonconsecutively paginated periodical, but (1) designate appropriate works as “Editorial,”

“Opinion,” or “Letter to the Editor” just after the author’s name; and (2) give only the first page of

the piece—no pincite is necessary.

William J. Clinton, Opinion, AIDS Is Not a Death Sentence, N.Y. TIMES, Dec. 1, 2002, at 9.

If the place of publication is not obvious (for example, when citing the “Times”), include it in

roman type in a parenthetical following the name of the publication.

Trial Judge Will Not Give Enquiry Evidence, TIMES (London), June 13, 1990, at 3.

Online newspapers should be cited as online sources. Refer to Rule 18.2.

16.7 Special Citation Forms

16.7.1 Student-written law review materials

Cite normally as a consecutively paginated periodical, except that the author’s name should be

followed by the designation used in the journal, such as “Book Note,” “Note,” or “Comment.”

Omit the author if the work is unsigned.

Simon de Carvalho, Comment, Does the Tax Code Believe Women?: Reexamining 26 U.S.C.

§ 104(a)(2) in the #MeToo Era, 87 U. CHI. L. REV. 1345, 1346 (2016).

16.7.2 Non-student-written book reviews

Cite normally as a consecutively paginated periodical. Include either a “(book review)”

parenthetical after the date parenthetical or, if relevant, a “(reviewing . . .)” parenthetical that

cites the work reviewed.

Mary I. Coombs, Lowering One’s Cites: A (Sort of) Review of The University of Chicago Manual

of Legal Citation, 76 VA. L. REV. 1099, 1103 (1990) (book review).

An untitled non-student-written book review should be titled: Book Review.

16.7.3 Symposia and colloquia

To cite an entire symposium or colloquium, include the relevant descriptor in roman type before the

title (unless the title makes it clear), and cite only the first page.

Symposium, Changing Images of the State, 107 HARV. L. REV. 1179 (1994).

The Brennan Center Symposium on Constitutional Law, 87 CALIF. L. REV. 1059 (1999).

Cite articles within a symposium or colloquium normally.

16.7.4 Commentaries and other special designations

Special article designations should appear in roman type just after the author’s name.

16.7.5 Multipart articles

Cite multipart articles with the parenthetical “(pt(s). xx–yy)” after the article’s title.

Give the volume, periodical, pincite, and date citations for all parts cited. When citing only some parts,

only give the volume, periodical, pincite, and date citations for those parts.

Harlan F. Stone, The Equitable Rights and Liabilities of Strangers to a Contract (pts. 1 & 2), 18

COLUM. L. REV. 291 (1918), 19 COLUM. L. REV. 177 (1919).

16.7.6 Annotations

Cite normally as a consecutively paginated periodical, except that the author’s name should be followed

by the special designation “Annotation” offset by commas, under Rule 16.7.4.

16.7.8 Newsletters and other noncommercially distributed periodicals

Cite normally as a nonconsecutively paginated periodical, except that the name of the publication

should be followed by a parenthetical indicating (1) the issuing organization and (2) its location.

Recent Grants, FCD UPDATE (Found. for Child Dev., New York, N.Y.), Dec. 1990, at 1, 7.

Abbreviate the issuing institution under Rule 15.1(d) (Institutional Authors).

16.8 Electronic Media and Online Sources

Periodical materials within commercial electronic databases should be cited normally according to

the forms provided in Rule 16.1. Provide, additionally, a citation to the relevant database.

T.R. Fehrenbach, TV’s Alamo Tale Fairly Accurate, SAN ANTONIO EXPRESS-NEWS, Mar. 17,

1996, at A1, 1996 WL 2824823.

As in Rule 18, cite only to the print version if accessible. A periodical that is only available online

may be cited according to Rule 18.2.

16.9 Short Citation Forms

Short-form citations may be cited according to Rule 4.2 (using “supra”), and should take the

following form:

{author’s last name}, supra note {#}, at {pincite}.

Lakier, supra note 1, at 1271.

Substitute the title or designation of the piece when author is unavailable.

The use of “id.” is acceptable with periodical articles.

Rule 17: Unpublished and Forthcoming Sources

17.1 Basic Citation Form

Unpublished manuscripts, dissertations, working papers, and other such academic works should be

cited in the following fashion:

{author}, {title} {pincite} ({date}) ({descriptive parenthetical(s)}).

Robert E. Hall, The Inkjet Aftermarket: An Economic Analysis 23 (1997)

(unpublished manuscript) (on file with author).

Unpublished correspondence (print or digital) should be cited in the following fashion:

{descriptive title} ({date}) ({descriptive parenthetical(s)}).

Letter from Max J. Kober, Bluebook Managing Ed., U. Chi. L. Rev., to Sean Frazzette,

Bluebook Managing Ed., U. Chi. L. Rev. (Aug. 9, 2020) (on file with author).

Always include a date with the source. If no date is available, include an “(undated)”

parenthetical.

Refer to Rule 17.3 for citing forthcoming publications, which are cited analogously to other

authorities (with slight modifications). Refer to Rule 17.6 for short forms.

17.2 Unpublished Materials

Cite unpublished academic works normally using the form in Rule 17.1. The date should be as

specific as possible—if the day is available, cite it.

Append descriptive parentheticals detailing (1) the type of unpublished work and (2) the location of

the work.

Yair Listokin, What Do Corporate Default Rules and Menus Do? An Empirical

Examination 13–16 (May 2005) (Yale L. Sch. working paper) (on file with author).

Correspondence should be cited according to the form in Rule 17.1, using a more descriptive title

that both (1) identifies the nature of the document and (2) identifies the writer and addressee as

specifically as possible. Abbreviate title and institutional affiliation according to Table 6.

Memorandum from the Ad Hoc Comm. on Women & Clerkships to the Faculty of Yale

Law Sch. 14 (Feb. 13, 1991) (on file with author).

Unpublished speeches and addresses should be cited as follows:

{speaker}, {title and institutional affiliation}, {title of speech or address} ({date}).

Bradley Smith, Chairman, Fed. Election Comm’n, Keynote Address at the University of

Pennsylvania Law Review Symposium: The Law of Democracy (Feb. 6, 2004).

17.3 Forthcoming Publications

Cite a forthcoming work using the form that would be used were the work published. For example,

an unpublished student comment would be cited as if it were a student-written work in a periodical

under Rule 16.7.1.

However, (1) do not include a pincite, (2) add the designation “forthcoming” to the date

parenthetical, and (3) add the month to the date of publication, if available.

William Baude & Stephen E. Sachs, The Misunderstood Eleventh Amendment, 169

U. PA. L. REV. (forthcoming 2021).

If a pincite is necessary, include it in a parenthetical and append an additional parenthetical with the

location of the document.

Frederic M. Bloom, Information Lost & Found, 100 CAL. L. REV. (forthcoming 2011)

(manuscript at 34 n.213) (on file with author).

17.4 Working Papers

Cite an unpublished work that has been officially designated as a working paper by appending a

parenthetical with (1) the sponsoring organization (abbreviated under Rule 15.1(d)), (2) the

working paper designation and number, and (3) the year.

Alan J. Auerbach & Laurence J. Kotlikoff, National Savings, Economic Welfare, and the Structure of

Taxation 24–33 (Nat’l Bureau of Econ. Rsch., Working Paper No. 729, 1981).

Unofficial or unnumbered working papers are cited under Rule 17.2.

17.5 Electronic Media and Online Sources

Unpublished and forthcoming sources within commercial electronic databases should be cited

normally according to the forms provided in Rule 17.1. Provide, additionally, a citation to the

relevant database.

Barbara G. Ryder, Incremental Data Flow Analysis Based on a Unified Model of Elimination

Algorithms (Aug. 15, 1982) (Ph.D. dissertation, Rutgers University), 23 PQDT 5467.

When citing to a source that is only available online, refer to Rule 18.2.

17.6 Short Citation Forms

Short-form citations may be cited according to Rule 4.2 (using “supra”), and should take the

following form:

{author’s last name}, supra note {#}, at {pincite}.

Bloom, supra note 10 (manuscript at 34 n.213).

Substitute the name of the source when there is no author name.

Letter from Max Kober to Sean Frazzette, supra note 2, at 1.

The use of “id.” is acceptable with unpublished and forthcoming sources.

Rule 18: The Internet, Electronic Media, and Other Nonprint Resources

18.1 Basic Citation Forms

Internet sources should be cited with caution and only if (1) a paper source is not available or

(2) the digital copy is an exact copy of the paper source.

To preserve cited internet sources, use the archiving service Perma.cc. When the rules request a

URL, archive the site and insert the Perma link instead. Do not append the Perma link in brackets.

Refer to Rule 18.2 for internet sources. Anything that is sufficiently reliable should be cited

according to another rule. Refer to Rules 18.6–.8 for Films and Videos, Audio Recordings, and

Photographs and Illustrations, respectively. For citations to Electronic Storage Media and

Microform, consult Rule 18.4 and Rule 18.5 of The Bluebook.

Rule 18.9 describes the relevant short forms.

18.2 The Internet

(a)

Citing without the URL

Internet sources that are authenticated, official, or exact copies of the paper source can be cited as if

to the print version—i.e., without the URL and according to another rule. The clearest example is

an online PDF of a case from an official reporter, which should be cited as normal under Rule 10.

Such sources include official state legal codes hosted online, exact and unaltered copies of print sources

(PDFs), and commercial electronic databases (like Westlaw).

OFFICE OF MGMT. & BUDGET, A NEW ERA OF RESPONSIBILITY: RENEWING AMERICA’S

PROMISE (2009).

United States v. Grigg, 498 F.3d 1070, 1072–73 (9th Cir. 2007).

(b)

Citing with the URL

(1)

Generally

Other internet sources, such as online-only documents, webpages, social media posts, or

documents whose print copies are practically unavailable should be cited using the

following format:

{author}, {title}, {WEBSITE} {page #} ({month} {date}, {year}), {Perma}.

Daniel P. Tokaji, Voter Registration in a Pandemic, UCLR O

NLINE

(June 26,

2020), https://perma.cc/8TYP-6S4C.

If the webpage provides no date associated with the citation, include a “last modified” or

“last updated” parenthetical after the URL, if available. Do not include a time of day or a

“last visited” parenthetical.

If a Perma archive link is unavailable or nonfunctioning, only then include the live URL.

Omit any title for social media posts where no title is evident.

Donald J. Trump (@realDonaldTrump), TWITTER (June 30, 2020),

https://twitter.com/realDonaldTrump/status/1277977452187275266

(2)

Pincites

Use only the original print pagination, if available; otherwise, do not pincite.

18.3 Commercial Electronic Databases

Westlaw, LEXIS, Bloomberg Law, and any other trustworthy private databases requiring a

subscription are commercial electronic databases. Cite the authorities in them normally,

according to the table below.

Cases Rule 10.8

Constitutions Rule 11

Statutes Rule 12.5

Legislative Materials Rule 13.7

Regulations Rule 14.4

Books, Reports, and Other Rule 15.9

Nonperiodic Materials

Periodical Materials Rule 16.8

18.4 Films, Broadcasts, and Noncommercial Video Materials

Cite a film as follows:

{TITLE} ({producer} {year}).

LEGALLY BLONDE 2: RED, WHITE & BLONDE (M.G.M. 2003).

Cite a television broadcast as follows:

{show title: episode title} ({producer OR broadcaster} {month} {day}, {year}).

Lost: Tabula Rasa (ABC Oct. 6, 2004).

Cite noncommercial videos (like instruction videos or home videos) as follows:

{medium}: {title} ({creator} {year}) ({location of material}).

DVD: University of Shrek-ago (Law School Musical 2020) (on file with author).

Do not pincite to these materials.

18.5 Audio Recordings

Cite commercial recordings as follows:

{ARTIST}, {song title}, on {ALBUM TITLE} ({recording company} {year}). TWO

DOOR CINEMA CLUB, I Can Talk, on TOURIST HISTORY (Kitsuné 2010). JAMES

TAYLOR, SWEET BABY JAMES (Warner Bros. 1970).

Cite noncommercially available recordings like noncommercial videos.

Cite podcasts and online recordings according to Rule 18.2.

18.6 Photographs and Illustrations

Cite photographs and illustrations as follows:

{artist}, Photograph/Illustration of {descriptive title}.

Append a related-authority clause under Rule 1.6, where relevant, to indicate that the photograph or

illustration appears “in” a cited work.

18.7 Short Citation Forms

Short-form citations for internet authorities cited without the URL should be formulated

according to the corresponding rule for the print source.

Short-form citations for internet authorities cited with the URL may be cited according to

Rule 4.2 (using “supra”), and should take the following form:

{author’s last name}, supra note {#}, at {pincite}.

Tokaji, supra note 3.

If no pagination is available, do not pincite. Substitute the name of the source when the author

name is unavailable.

The use of “id.” is acceptable with internet and other electronic sources.

Rule 19: Services

A service is an unofficial compilation that publishes cases or other authorities. The service takes the

place of the reporter in a citation formatted according to another rule. For example, a citation to a

service might take the place of the official reporter in a case citation under Rule 10, when the case is

unpublished.

SEC v. Tex. Int’l Airlines, 29 Fed. R. Serv. 2d (West) 408 (D.D.C. 1979).

19.1 Citation Form for Services

Cite services as follows:

{volume number} {PERIODICAL} ({publisher}) {1st page}, {pincite} ({date})

74 A.F.T.R.2d (RIA) 354 (6th Cir. 1994).

Abbreviate the publisher according to the nonexhaustive list in Table 15 of The Bluebook, or

using the publisher’s capitalized initials with no periods. Consult Table 15 for additional

examples and instructions.

Research Institute of America

Becomes: RIA

Otherwise, formulate citations to services according to the closest analogous rule—Rule 10 for

cases, Rule 16 for periodicals, etc.

Kovacs v. Comm’r, 74 A.F.T.R.2d (RIA) 354 (6th Cir. 1994).

19.2 Short Citation Forms

Provide short-form citations for services according to the closest analogous rule. So, for

example, a service cited within a case citation should not be short cited using “supra,” but a

service cited within a periodical may be short cited using “supra.”

Rule 20: Foreign Materials

Rules 20.1–.2 apply to all citations of foreign materials. Rules 20.3–.6 detail general rules for foreign

materials by authority. Rule 20.7 explains short forms. Refer to Table 2 of The Bluebook for the

specific rules on citing foreign materials by jurisdiction.

20.1 Jurisdiction

Provide a jurisdictional parenthetical after any foreign citation using the abbreviations in Table

10, unless the jurisdiction is clear from context.

Canada Act, 1982, c.11 (U.K.), reprinted in R.S.C. 1985, app. II, no 4 (Can.).

20.2 Non-English-Language Documents

This rule does not apply to translated works.

Cite the English-language name or title of a foreign document only if it is at least as authoritative as

the most official version of the document. Otherwise, provide the name of the document in its

original language, capitalized normally under Rule 8. Do not append a translation in brackets unless

absolutely necessary for clarity.

Abbreviate foreign-language titles according to Table 2 of The Bluebook.

For languages with nonroman type, like Chinese or Russian, transliterate foreign words using an

established, uniform system of transliteration, but append the original text in a parenthetical.

WANG TAISHENG (王泰升), TAIWAN FALÜ DE DUANLIE YU LIANXU (台灣法律的斷裂與

連續) (2002).

If the name of an authority is unwieldy, it may be abbreviated in brackets on first use.

20.3 Cases

Cite foreign cases normally under Rule 10—consulting Rules 20.1–.2 as appropriate, and Table 2 of

The Bluebook for citation conventions by jurisdiction—with the following modifications.

Indicate the court in a parenthetical following the citation only if unclear from the context. The highest

court in a jurisdiction is abbreviated using the jurisdiction’s name.

The King v. Lockwood (1782), 99 Eng. Rep. 379 (K.B.).

Chase v. Campbell, [1962] S.C.R. 425 (Can.).

20.4 Constitutions

Cite foreign constitutions normally under Rule 11. The name of the constitution may be either

(1)

in its original language, in which case “[Constitution]” should be appended to the title; or

(2)

in English, using the T2 abbreviation, followed by “CONST.”

BUNREACHT NA HÉIREANN [Constitution] amend. XXXVI.

IRELAND CONST. amend. XXXVI.

20.5 Statutes

Cite foreign statutes normally under Rule 12 (while following Rules 20.1–.2) if the jurisdiction’s statutes

are codified or compiled similarly to U.S. laws.

Otherwise, cite according to Table 2 of The Bluebook. Cite foreign common-law statutes not appearing

in a codification or compilation like statutes of the United Kingdom.

Emergency Powers Act, 1976 (Act No. 3/1976) (Ir.).

20.6 Non-English-Language and Foreign Periodicals

Cite foreign periodicals normally according to their relevant forms in Rule 16, while following Rules

20.1–.2.

20.7 Short Citation Forms

Foreign materials should be short cited according to the most analogous rule. So, for example, foreign

cases and periodicals may be short cited using “id.,” but foreign constitutions and statutes may not.

Rule 21: International Materials

21.1 Basic Citation Forms

This rule covers treaties, cases in international law, materials relating to international organization,

and analogous authorities. Refer to the specific rule for each type of authority for the basic full-

citation form. Rule 21.17 discusses short forms.

21.2 Non-English-Language Documents

Consult Rule 20.2.

21.3 Jurisdiction Not Evident from Context

Where the jurisdiction is not evident from context, cite the jurisdiction as in Rule 20.1 (Jurisdiction).

21.4 Treaties and Other International Agreements

Cite bilateral treaties and analogous authorities as follows:

{name of agreement} {subdivision cited}, {1st party}–{2d party}, {day} {month},

{year}, {U.S. citation}.

Convention for the Avoidance of Double Taxation and the Prevention of Fiscal Evasion

with Respect to Taxes on Estates, Inheritances, and Gifts, Fr.–U.S., Nov. 24, 1978, 32

U.S.T. 1935.

Cite multilateral treaties and analogous authorities as follows:

{name of agreement} {subdivision cited}, {day} {month}, {year}, {U.S. citation}.

North Atlantic Treaty art. 5, Apr. 4, 1949, 63 Stat. 2241.

The U.S. citation should be one of the following sources (listed in descending order of preference):

U.S.T. or Stat.; T.I.A.S. (or T.S./E.A.S.); U.N.T.S.; Senate Treaty/Executive Documents; the

Department of State Dispatch; Department of State Press Releases. Agreements to which the United

States is not a party need no U.S. citation; instead, include an appropriate international citation.

Abbreviate bilateral parties according to Table 10 in Appendix 3 of this manual. List parties in

alphabetical order.

The date should be the signing date. If the treaty was not signed on a single date, use the date on

which the treaty was approved, ratified, or adopted.

Incorporate foreign-language names according to Rule 20.2.

21.5 International Law Cases

Cite cases under international law according to Rule 10 whenever possible, with the following

modifications.

For all such citations, cite to paragraphs, rather than page numbers, if available. Between the case

name and reporter, include a characterization of the decision (Judgment, Opinion, etc.), offset

by commas, if relevant and not clear from the context.

21.5.1 The [Permanent] International Court of Justice

Cite I.C.J. (and P.I.C.J., before 1946) cases as follows:

{case name} ({party names}), {type of decision}, {volume number} {periodical} {1st

page}, {cited paragraph(s)} ({date}).

Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua (Nicar. v. U.S.), Judgment, 1986

I.C.J. Rep. 14, ¶ 190 (June 27).

Abbreviate state parties according to Table 10 when they appear as party names. But do not

abbreviate state names in case names. In advisory opinions, never include party names.

21.5.2 European Union Courts

Cases decided in the courts of member states of the European Union should be cited according to

the reporter of the particular member state. Otherwise, cite as follows:

Pre-2011: Case {number}, {case name}, {volume number} E.C.R. {1st page}.

Post-2011: Case {number}, {case name}, ECLI:EU:{court}:{year}:{ordinal case

number}, {cited paragraph(s)} ({date}).

21.5.3 European Court of Human Rights

Cite cases before the European Court of Human Rights to European Court of Human Rights,

Reports of Judgments and Decisions (Eur. Ct. H.R.). Reports of Judgments and Decisions were

discontinued after 2015.

For cases after 2015, cite the Court’s official website, HUDOC (http://www.echr.coe.int).

Citations of HUDOC should include: (1) the parties’ names (abbreviated according to

Rule 10.2); (2) the application number for the case; (3) a pincite (using paragraph numbers, if

available, rather than page numbers); (4) the date; and (5) a Perma link to the document

S.M. v. Croatia, App. No. 60561/14, ¶ 81 (July 19, 2018), https://perma.cc/M6KH-H3SV.

For cases before the court between 1999 and 2015, cite by case name (abbreviated according to

Rule 10.2); volume number; reporter; page number, where applicable; and year.

Until 1999, cases were also heard before the now-defunct European Commission on Human

Rights. These cases should be cited to Collections of Decisions of the European Commission on Human

Rights (Eur. Comm’n H.R. Dec. & Rep.) or Y.B. Eur. Conv. on H.R., if therein. If not, cite European

Human Rights Reports (Eur. H.R. Rep.). When citing Y.B. Eur. Conv. on H.R., indicate

parenthetically whether the case was before the Commission or the Court. Indicate both the parties

and the application number for the case.

21.5.4 Inter-American Commission on Human Rights

Cite cases before the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights to the Annual Report of the Inter-

American Commission on Human Rights (Inter-Am. Comm’n H.R.).

Tortrino v. Argentina, Case 11.597, Inter-Am. Comm’n H.R., Report No. 7/98,

OEA/Ser.L./V/II.98, doc. 7 rev. ¶ 15 (1997).

21.5.5 Inter-American Court of Human Rights

For cases before the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, cite the Inter-American Court of

Human Rights, Decisions and Judgments (Inter-Am. Ct. H.R.).

21.5.6 International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea

Cite cases of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea to the International Tribunal for the Law of the

Sea Reports of Judgments, Advisory Opinions and Orders (ITLOS Rep.).

21.5.7 International Criminal Court and Similar Tribunals

Cite cases of international criminal tribunals as follows: (1) case name (include only one party on each

side of the “v.” and include only the last name of individuals); (2) case number; (3) type of ruling

(include only the last name of judges); (4) paragraph number, if necessary; and (5) date.

Prosecutor v. Kayishema, Case No. ICTR 95-1-T, Judgment, ¶ 126 (May 21, 1999).

21.5.8 Other International Courts

Cite other international courts using the closest analogous citation format above.

21.5.9 International Cases in National Courts

If an international case is decided by a national court whose reporter is not indicated in Table 2 of

The Bluebook, cite I.L.R., Ann. Dig., C.M.L.R., Common Mkt. Rep. (CCH), a yearbook, or an online

source.

21.6 International Arbitrations and Claim Commissions

Cite such decisions by analogy to Rule 21.5.

21.7 United Nations Sources

Cite United Nations sources to the Official Records. Press releases, sales documents, yearbooks, and

periodicals should be cited only when preferred sources are unavailable. The UN Charter is cited

according to Rule 21.4.

Include the Official Records title; the subdivision of the organ, if necessary; the session and

meeting number; the pincite, if necessary; the UN document symbol; and the date.

U.N. GAOR, 56th Sess., 1st plen. mtg. at 3, U.N. Doc. A/56/PV.1 (Sept. 12, 2001).

G.A. Res. 47/163, ¶ 5 (Dec. 18, 1992).

S.C. Res. 508, ¶ 3 (June 5, 1982).

Economic and Social Council Res. 1990/26 (May 24, 1990).

Short cite such sources using the normal “supra” form.

21.8 League of Nations

Cite the League of Nations Covenant as:

League of Nations Covenant art. 16.

Cite League of Nations treaties and conventions according to Rule 21.4.

21.9 European Union

Cite EU materials according to the closest analogous source under Rule 21.5, with the

modifications below.

Since Feb. 1, 2003: Official Journal of the European Union (O.J.) 1973–Jan. 31,

2003: Official Journal of the European Communities (O.J.)

Pre-1973: Special Edition of the Official Journal of the European

Communities (O.J. SE*8. E;.)

Or, if unavailable: Journal Officiel des Communautés Européennes (J.O.)

Cite Regulations, Directives, and Decisions of the Council and Commission by the issuing institution,

type of legislation, number, and subdivision (if applicable).

21.10 Council of Europe

Cite debates of the Parliamentary Assembly, formerly the Consultative Assembly, to the official

reports. Cite documents as follows:

Eur. Consult. Ass., Reply of the Comm. of Ministers, 12th Sess., Doc. No. 1126 (1960).

87 
 
21.11 World Trade Organization 
 
Cite WTO materials according to the closest analogous source under Rule 21.5, with the 
modifications below. 
 
Cite reports of WTO panels and the Appellate Body by their official document symbol, and cite 
like materials of the Appellate Body in a like format. 
Appellate Body Report, Brazil—Export Financing Programme for Aircraft, ¶ 19, WTO Doc. 
WT/DS46/AB/R (adopted Aug. 20, 1999). 
 
21.12 International Monetary Fund 
 
Cite IMF materials in the same manner as United Nations documents in Rule 21.7, or according to 
the closest analogous source under Rule 21. 
 
21.13 Other Intergovernmental Organizations 
 
Cite other intergovernmental organizations’ materials in the same manner as United Nations 
documents in Rule 21.7, or according to the closest analogous source under Rule 21. 
 
21.14 International Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) 
 
Cite NGO materials in the same manner as United Nations documents in Rule 21.7. 
 
21.15 Yearbooks 
 
Cite yearbooks as periodicals under Rule 16, but cite United Nations yearbooks in the same 
manner as United Nations documents under Rule 21.7. 
 
21.16 Digests 
 
Citations to digests should be avoided. Otherwise, cite as a periodical: 
U.N. Plan for Namibian Independence, 1989–90 DIGEST OF UNITED STATES PRACTICE IN 
INTERNATIONAL LAW, ch. 7, § A(1) at 198. 
 
21.17 Short Citation Forms 
 
For every international authority, formulate short citation forms using the closest analogous rule. For 
example, international law cases under Rule 21.5 should be short cited as cases according to Rule 10.9. 
 
The use of “id.” is appropriate for international materials. 

Appendix 1: General Rules of Style and Punctuation

In matters not peculiar to legal writing, general rules of style and usage are observed. The Chicago

Manual of Style (CMS) is used to resolve those questions of style not addressed in this manual or in

The Bluebook itself. Additional style pointers may be found in Garner’s Modern American Usage.

Nonbreaking Spaces

On a PC, create a nonbreaking space by pressing control+shift+space. On a Mac, press option+space.

To see nonbreaking spaces and other formatting marks, click the “Show/Hide ¶” toggle in the

Paragraph menu in Word.

In paragraph mode,

Improper ellipses (without nonbreaking spaces): .·.·.

Proper ellipses (with nonbreaking spaces): .°.°.

Commas

Always place a comma after a case citation even if not grammatically required.

Hans v. Louisiana, 134 U.S. 1 (1890), is the closest case on point.

When an italicized title, such as a case name, ends with a quotation mark, and the title is immediately

followed by a comma, place the comma outside the quotation marks and leave it unitalicized. The entire

title, including the quotation marks, should be in italics.

The Legacy of Brown: “With All Deliberate Speed”, . . . .

In a series of three or more elements, separate the elements by commas. When a conjunction joins

the last two elements in a series, a comma is used before the conjunction (this is the serial or Oxford

comma). See CMS ¶ 6.19.

When the elements in a series are long and complex, or involve internal punctuation, separate them

by semicolons.

Dashes

There are three kinds of dashes: em dashes, en dashes, and hyphens.

(a)

Hyphens (-)

(1)

Compound terms should be hyphenated if they are hyphenated in Merriam-Webster.

(2)

Compound terms should not be hyphenated if they are well-recognized and widely used

legal terms (e.g., “common law,” “due process,” “equal protection,” or “federal court”).

(3)

A hyphen should also be used to separate numbers that are not inclusive, such as telephone

numbers, social security numbers, and public law numbers.

(4)

For all other terms, CMS ¶ 7.89 sets forth rules for when terms should be hyphenated.

(b)

En dashes (–)

(1)

An en dash is longer than a hyphen, but shorter than an em dash.

(2)

Use an en dash:

(i)

to connect continuing or inclusive numbers, such as dates, times, and page

and note numbers (for example: 5–4 decision, 1975–1982, notes 83–95). If

an en dash would immediately follow a hyphen, use a “to” instead.

87 U. CHI. L. REV. at 1321–22

11 Ind. Code § 14-7-5-3 to -4

Not: § 14-7-5-3–4

(ii)

in place of a hyphen to separate the elements of a compound word used as an

adjective, when one of the elements is an open compound or when two or

more of the elements are hyphenated compounds (for example: Los Angeles–

Dallas shuttle, quasi-executive–quasi-judicial court, post–Civil War period).

(3)

Note that hyphens, not en dashes, are used in the following examples:

non-English-speaking

dog-eat-dog competition

(c)

Em dashes (—)

(1)

An em dash is twice as long as an en dash.

(2)

Em dashes should be neither preceded nor followed by a space.

(3)

Use an em dash:

(i)

to denote a sudden break in thought that causes an abrupt change in sentence

structure.

Absent such aggravating factors, the defendant would receive the

presumptive punishment—the victim’s conduct would be excluded from

the court’s sentencing decision.

(ii)

to set off an element added to give emphasis or explanation by expanding a

phrase occurring in the main clause.

It is these cases—Weems v. United States31 and Coker v. Georgia32—that reveal

the Court’s redistributive bent.

(4)

To avoid confusion, do not use more than a single em dash—or pair of em dashes—in

any given sentence.

(d)

Creating em and en dashes

In Microsoft Word on a PC, an em dash is usually made by typing the word preceding the dash;

then typing two hyphens without any spaces between the hyphens and the preceding or

subsequent word, or between the two hyphens; and then typing the next word. On Macs, press

shift+option+hyphen. An em dash can also be obtained from the assortment of Symbols under

the Insert menu.

In Microsoft Word on a PC, an en dash can be made by typing the word preceding the dash;

inserting one space; typing one hyphen; inserting one space; typing the next word; and typing one

space. Word will autocorrect it to an en dash. Then, close up the spaces to either side of the en

dash. On Macs, press option+hyphen. An en dash can also be obtained from the assortment of

Symbols under the Insert menu.

Note that you can set up shortcuts to make em and en dashes more easily available.

Parentheses

Parentheses (like em dashes) may be used to set off an amplifying, explanatory, or digressive element.

When parentheses are used to enclose an independent sentence, the period belongs inside the

parentheses. When parentheses are used to enclose only part of a sentence, the period belongs outside.

Compare:

Thus, markets dominate command systems. (Of course, others loudly dispute this view.)

The analysis was thorough (albeit brief).

If a full sentence is quoted in parentheses, periods belong both inside and outside the parentheses.

See Susan E. Jones, Voir Dire and Jury Selection, 22 TRIAL 60, 66 (1966) (“If you handle voir dire

well, by the time you reach opening statement, you will be preaching to the converted.”).

Other Rules of Style

(a)

Refer to CMS ¶ 5.255–5.256 on gender-neutral phrasing and pronouns.

(b)

When a single noun is made possessive, always use an “apostrophe-s,” even if the noun ends in

an “s”. With a plural noun, add only an apostrophe to indicate possession. Thus:

Justice Holmes’s jurisprudence

Congress’s concern

the justices’ perennial squabbling

(c)

When a noun is a compound word or phrase that ends in a plural noun, add only an

apostrophe to indicate possession.

For example: the United States’ flag

(d)

The word “none” (an abbreviation for “not one”) is singular, not plural.

For example, “none of the managing editors knows anything about the law.”

(e)

If one were to use the subjunctive mood in a sentence, one would be wise to use that form

consistently across all verbs that one would wish to include in the sentence.

(f)

The standard rule is that “that” should be used only to introduce a restrictive (or “defining”)

clause, which serves to identify the entity being talked about; in this use it should never be

preceded by a comma. “Which” is to be used only with nonrestrictive (or “nondefining”)

clauses, which give additional information about an entity that has already been identified in the

context; in this use, “which” is always preceded by a comma. For more information, see The

New Fowler’s Modern English Usage. The easy rule of thumb is if removing the clause forces you

to ask, “which?” then you use “that.”

The case that legalized same-sex marriage was decided in 2015.

Obergefell v. Hodges,27 which announced that same-sex couples could legally marry, was

decided in 2015.

(g)

Insert nonbreaking spaces in the text and in footnotes after a § or ¶ symbol, other internal

divisions, between the periods of an ellipsis, and any other markers for which symbols and

numerals should remain on the same line. For instructions on how to insert a nonbreaking

space, see Appendix 1, supra, “Nonbreaking Spaces.”

(h)

When referencing particular divisions within the piece, primary section headings are referred to

as “Part.” All first-, second-, and third-order subsection headings are referred to as “Section.”

This Part outlines the background constitutional doctrine.

The previous Section rejected the use of legislative history.

Part II.B.3 explores the economic foundations of tort law.

But: In the sections that follow . . . .

(i)

Good usage versus common usage. CMS ¶ 5.250 provides a comprehensive list of oft-

misused expressions and is a valuable resource for matters not specifically addressed in

Appendix 1. Some commonly encountered examples include:

affect; effect. Affect, almost always a verb, means “to influence, have an effect on” {the

adverse publicity affected the election}. (The noun affect has a specialized meaning in

psychology: manifestation of emotion or mood. Consult your dictionary.) Effect, usually a

noun, means “outcome, result” {the candidate’s attempted explanations had no effect}.

But it may also be a verb meaning “to make happen, produce” {the goal had been to effect

a major change in campus politics}.

amount; number. Amount is used with mass nouns {a decrease in the amount of

pollution}, number with content nouns {a growing number of dissidents}.

may; might. May expresses what is possible, is factual, or could be factual {I may have

turned off the stove, but I can’t recall doing it}. Might suggests something that is uncertain,

hypothetical, or contrary to fact {I might have won the marathon if I had entered}. See

CMS ¶ 5.147.

on; upon. Prefer on to upon unless introducing an event or condition {put that on the

shelf, please} {upon the job’s completion, you’ll get paid}.

onto; on to; on. When is on a preposition and when is it an adverb? The sense of the

sentence should tell, but the distinction can be subtle. Onto implies a movement, so it has an

adverbial flavor even though it is a preposition {the gymnast jumped onto the bars}.

When on is part of the verbal phrase, it is an adverb and to is the preposition {the gymnast

held on to the bars}. One trick is to mentally say “up” before on: if the sentence still makes

sense, then onto is probably the right choice. Alone, on does not imply motion

{the gymnast is good on the parallel bars}.

pleaded; pled. The first is the standard past-tense and past-participial form {he pleaded

guilty} {they have pleaded with their families}. Avoid “pled.”

question whether; question of whether; question as to whether. The first phrasing is

the preferred one.

since; because. Since indicates a temporal relationship {The Cubs haven’t won the

World Series since 2016}. Because indicates a causal relationship {The Cubs failed to make

the playoffs because they lost too many games}.

therefore; therefor. The words have different senses. Therefore, the common word, means

“as a consequence; for that reason” {the evidence of guilt was slight; therefore, the jury

acquitted the defendant}. Therefor, a legalism, means “in return for” or “for it” {he brought

the unworn shirt back to the store and received a refund therefor}.

toward; towards. The preferred form is without the s in American English, with it in

British English. The same is true for other directional words, such as upward, downward,

forward, and backward, as well as afterward.

Appendix 2: Section Headings

Our style regarding section headings is as follows:

(a)

Primary section headings should be designated by Roman numerals (separated from the

title by two spaces), centered, and in small caps. Introduction and Conclusion sections

should follow this style but should not be designated by Roman numerals. Capitalization

is discussed below.

THE LANGUAGE, HISTORY, AND POLICY OF THE LEAD PLAINTIFF PROVISION

(b)

First-order subsection headings should be designated by capital letters and left-justified,

with the words themselves indented one-quarter of an inch.

A. Historical Background

(c)

Second-order subsection headings should be designated by Arabic numerals, indented one-

quarter of an inch from the left margin, and only the first letter should be capitalized (plus, of

course, proper nouns). These headings should end with a period. The words themselves should

be indented a total of one-half of an inch.

3. A generalized injury for commission of fraud on the United States.

(d)

Third-order subsection headings should be designated by lowercase letters followed by a

closing parenthesis, indented one-half of an inch from the left margin, and italicized. The first

letter alone should be capitalized (plus, of course, proper nouns). Two spaces should separate

the subsection heading from the text following it. Note that the headings should always end

with a period and that the following text should begin directly after that period (not indented

on the next line).

b) Incidental by-products. The creation at issue in Toro Co. v. R & R Prods. Co. was a numbering

system for replacement parts.

(e)

Capitalization of words in primary section headings and first-order subsection headings

should be headline-style, following Rule 8 of this manual and CMS ¶¶ 8.157–8.163, even if it

changes the original capitalization. The basic rule is as follows:

The first and last words and all nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and subordinating

conjunctions (if, because, that, etc.) are capitalized. Articles (a, an, the), coordinating conjunctions

(and, but, or, for, nor), and prepositions (under, after, and through) are lowercased unless they have

more than four characters or are the first or last word of the title or subtitle. The to in

infinitives is also lowercased.

Appendix 3: Tables

Table 6 – Case Names and Institutional Authors in Citations

Academ[ic, y]

Acad.

Account[ant, ing, ancy]

Acct.

Administrat[ive, ion]

Admin.

Administrat[or, rix]

Adm’[r, x]

Advertising

Advert.

Advoca[te, cy]

Advoc.

Affair

Aff.

Africa[n]

Afr.

Agricultur[e, al]

Agric.

Alliance

All.

Alternative

Alt.

America[n]

Am.

Ancestry

Anc.

and

Annual

Ann.

Appellate

App.

Arbitrat[ion, or]

Arb.

Artificial Intelligence

A.I.

Associate

Assoc.

Association

Ass’n

Atlantic

Atl.

Attorney

Att’y

Authority

Auth.

Automo[bile, tive]

Auto.

Avenue

Ave.

Bankruptcy

Bankr.

Behavior[al]

Behav.

Board

Bd.

British

Brit.

Broadcast[er, ing]

Broad.

Building

Bldg.

Bulletin

Bull.

Business[es]

Bus.

Capital

Cap.

Casualt[y, ies]

Cas.

Catholic

Cath.

Cent[er, re]

Ctr.

Central

Cent.

Chemical

Chem.

Children

Child.

Chronicle

Chron.

Circuit

Cir.

Civil

Civ.

Civil Libert[y, ies]

C.L.

Civil Rights

C.R.

Coalition

Coal.

College

Coll.

Commentary

Comment.

Commerc[e. ial]

Com.

Commission

Comm’n

Commissioner

Comm’r

Committee

Comm.

Communication

Commc'n

Community

Cmty.

Company

Co.

Comparative

Compar.

Compensation

Comp.

Computer

Comput.

Condominium

Condo.

Conference

Conf.

Congress[ional]

Cong.

Consolidated

Consol.

Constitution[al]

Const.

Construction

Constr.

Contemporary

Contemp.

Continental

Cont’l

Contract

Cont.

Conveyance[r]

Conv.

Cooperat[ion, ive]

Coop.

Corporat[e, ion]

Corp.

Correction[s, al]

Corr.

Cosmetic

Cosm.

Counsel[or, ors, or's]

Couns.

County

Cnty.

Court

Ct.

Criminal

Crim.

Defen[d, der, se]

Def.

Delinquen[t, cy]

Delinq.

Department

Dep’t

Detention

Det.

Develop[er, ment]

Dev.

Digest

Dig.

Digital

Digit.

Diplomacy

Dipl.

Director

Dir.

Discount

Disc.

Dispute

Disp.

Distribut[or, ing, ion]

Distrib.

District

Dist.

Division

Div.

Doctor

Dr.

East[ern]

Econom[ic, ical, ics, y]

Econ.

Editor[ial]

Ed.

Education[al]

Educ.

Electr[ic, ical, icity, onic]

Elec.

Employ[ee, er, ment]

Emp.

Enforcement

Enf't

Engineer

Eng’r

Engineering

Eng’g

English

Eng.

Enterprise

Enter.

Entertainment

Ent.

Environment

Env’t

Environmental

Envtl.

Equality

Equal.

Equipment

Equip.

Estate

Est.

Europe[an]

Eur.

Examiner

Exam’r

Exchange

Exch.

Executive

Exec.

Execut[or, rix]

Ex’[r, x]

Explorat[ion, ory]

Expl.

Export[er, ation]

Exp.

Faculty

Fac.

Family

Fam.

Federal

Fed.

Federation

Fed’n

Fidelity

Fid.

Financ[e, ial, ing]

Fin.

Fortnightly

Fort.

Forum

Foundation

Found.

General

Gen.

Global

Glob.

Government

Gov’t

Group

Grp.

Guarant[y, or]

Guar.

Hispanic

Hisp.

Histor[ical, y]

Hist.

Hospital[ity]

Hosp.

Housing

Hous.

Human

Hum.

Humanity

Human.

Immigration

Immigr.

Import[er, ation]

Imp.

Incorporated

Inc.

Indemnity

Indem.

Independen[ce, t]

Indep.

Industr[y, ies, ial]

Indus.

Inequality

Ineq.

Information

Info.

Injury

Inj.

Institut[e, ion]

Inst.

Insurance

Ins.

Intellectual

Intell.

Intelligence

Intel.

Interdisciplinary

Interdisc.

Interest

Int.

International

Int’l

Invest[ment, or]

Inv.

Journal[s]

Judicial

Jud.

Juridical

Jurid.

Jurisprudence

Juris.

Justice

Just.

Juvenile

Juv.

Laboratory

Lab’y

Law[s]

Law (first word)

Law

Lawyer

Law.

Legislat[ion, ive]

Legis.

Liability

Liab.

Librar[y, ian]

Libr.

Limited

Ltd.

Litigation

Litig.

Local

Loc.

Machine[ry]

Mach.

Magazine

Mag.

Maintenance

Maint.

Management

Mgmt.

Manufacturer

Mnfr.

Manufacturing

Mfg.

Maritime

Mar.

Market

Mkt.

Marketing

Mktg.

Matrimonial

Matrim.

Mechanic[al]

Mech.

Medic[al, inal, ine]

Med.

Memorial

Mem’l

Merchan[t, dise, dising]

Merch.

Metropolitan

Metro.

Military

Mil.

Mineral

Min.

Modern

Mdn.

Mortgage

Mortg.

Municipal[ity]

Mun.

Mutual

Mut.

National

Nat'l

Nationality

Nat’y

Natural

Nat.

Negligence

Negl.

Negotiat[ion, or]

Negot.

Newsletter

Newsl.

North[ern]

Northeast[ern]

Ne.

Northwest[ern]

Nw.

Number

No.

Offic[e, ial]

Off.

Opinion

Op.

Order

Ord.

Organiz[ation, ing]

Org.

Pacific

Pac.

Parish

Par.

Partnership

P’ship

Patent

Pat.

Person[al, nel]

Pers.

Perspective

Persp.

Pharmaceutic[s, al, als]

Pharm.

Philosoph[ical, y]

Phil.

Planning

Plan.

Policy

Pol’y

Politic[al, s]

Pol.

Preserv[e, ation]

Pres.

Priva[cy, te]

Priv.

Probat[e, ion]

Prob.

Problems

Probs.

Proce[edings, dure]

Proc.

Product[ion]

Prod.

Professional

Prof’l

Property

Prop.

Protection

Prot.

Psycholog[ical, ist, y]

Psych.

Public

Pub.

Publication

Publ’n

Publishing

Publ’g

Quarterly

Railroad

R.R.

Railway

Ry.

Record

Rec.

Referee

Ref.

Refin[ing, ement]

Refin.

Regional

Reg’l

Reg.

Regulat[ion, or, ory]

Reg.

Rehabilitat[ion, ive]

Rehab.

Relation

Rel.

Report[er]

Rep.

Reproduct[ion, ive]

Reprod.

Research

Rsch.

Reserv[ation, e]

Rsrv.

Resolution

Resol.

Resource[s]

Res.

Responsibility

Resp.

Restaurant

Rest.

Retirement

Ret.

Review, Revista

Rev.

Rights

Rts.

Road

Rd.

Savings

Sav.

School

Sch.

Scien[ce, tific]

Sci.

Scottish

Scot.

Secretary

Sec’y

Securit[y, ies]

Sec.

Sentencing

Sent’g

Service

Serv.

Shareholder, Stockholder

S’holder

Social

Soc.

Society

Soc’y

Sociolog[ical, y]

Socio.

Solicitor

Solic.

Solution

Sol.

South[ern]

100

Southeast[ern]

Se.

Southwest[ern]

Sw.

Statistic[s, al]

Stat.

Steamship[s]

S.S.

Street

St.

Studies

Stud.

Subcommittee

Subcomm.

Supreme Court

Sup. Ct.

Surety

Sur.

Survey

Surv.

Symposium

Symp.

System[s]

Sys.

Taxation

Tax’n

Teacher

Tchr.

Techn[ical, ique, ological, ology]

Tech.

Telecommunication

Telecomm.

Tele[phone, graph]

Tel.

Temporary

Temp.

Township

Twp.

Transcontinental

Transcon.

Transnational

Transnat’l

Transport[ation]

Transp.

Tribune

Trib.

Trust[ee]

Tr.

Turnpike

Tpk.

Uniform

Unif.

United States

U.S.

University

Univ.

Urban

Urb.

Utility

Util.

Village

Vill.

Week

Wk.

Weekly

Wkly.

West[ern]

Yearbook (or Year Book)

Y.B.

Table 7 – Courts

Administrative Court

Admin. Ct.

Admiralty [Court, Division]

Adm.

Aldermen’s Court

Alder. Ct.

Appeals Court

App. Ct.

Appellate Court

App. Ct.

Appellate Department

App. Dep’t

Appellate Division

App. Div.

Armed Services Board of Contract Appeals

ASBCA

Bankruptcy Appellate Panel

B.A.P.

101

Bankruptcy [Court, Judge]

Bankr.

Board of Contract Appeals

B.C.A.

Board of Immigration Appeals

B.I.A.

Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences

B.P.A.I.

Board of Tax Appeals

B.T.A.

Borough Court

{Name} Bor. Ct.

Central District

C.D.

Chancery [Court, Division]

Ch.

Children’s Court

Child. Ct.

Circuit Court (old federal)

C.C.

Circuit Court (state)

Cir. Ct.

Circuit Court of Appeals (federal)

Cir.

Circuit Court of Appeals (state)

Cir. Ct. App.

City Court

{Name} City Ct.

Civil Appeals

Civ. App.

Civil Court of Record

Civ. Ct. Rec.

Civil District Court

Civ. Dist. Ct.

Claims Court

Cl. Ct.

Commerce Court

Comm. Ct.

Commission

Comm’n

Common Pleas

C.P. {when appropriate, name county or

similar subdivision}

Commonwealth Court

Commw. Ct.

Conciliation Court

Concil. Ct.

County Court

{Name} Cnty. Ct.

County Judge’s Court

Cnty. J. Ct.

Court

Ct.

Court of Appeal (English)

C.A.

Court of Appeals (federal)

Cir.

Court of Appeal[s] (state)

Ct. App.

Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces

C.A.A.F.

Court of Appeals for Veterans Claims

Vet. App.

Court of Civil Appeals

Civ. App.

Court of Claims

Ct. Cl.

Court of Common Pleas

Ct. Com. Pl.

Court of Criminal Appeals

Crim. App.

Court of Customs and Patent Appeals

C.C.P.A.

Court of Customs Appeals

Ct. Cust. App.

Court of Errors

Ct. Err.

Court of Errors and Appeals

Ct. Err. & App.

Court of Federal Claims

Fed. Cl.

Court of [General, Special] Sessions

Ct. {Gen. or Spec.} Sess.

Court of International Trade

Ct. Int’l Trade

Court of Military Appeals

C.M.A.

Court of Military Review

C.M.R.

102

Court of Special Appeals

Ct. Spec. App.

Court of Veterans Appeals

Ct. Vet. App.

Criminal Appeals

Crim. App.

Criminal District Court

Crim. Dist. Ct.

Customs Court

Cust. Ct.

District Court (federal)

District Court (state)

Dist. Ct.

District Court of Appeal[s]

Dist. Ct. App.

Division

Div.

Domestic Relations Court

Dom. Rel. Ct.

Eastern District

E.D.

Emergency Court of Appeals

Emer. Ct. App.

Equity [Court, Division]

Eq.

Family Court

Fam. Ct.

High Court

High Ct.

Judicial District

Jud. Dist.

Judicial Division

Jud. Div.

Judicial Panel on Multidistrict Litigation

J.P.M.L.

Justice of the Peace’s Court

J.P. Ct.

Juvenile Court

Juv. Ct.

Land Court

Land Ct.

Law Court

Law Ct.

Law Division

Law Div.

Magistrate Division

Magis. Div.

Magistrate’s Court

Magis. Ct.

Middle District

M.D.

Municipal Court

{Name} Mun. Ct.

Northern District

N.D.

Orphans’ Court

Orphans’ Ct.

Parish Court

{Name} Parish Ct.

Police Justice’s Court

Police J. Ct.

Prerogative Court

Prerog. Ct.

Probate Court

Prob. Ct.

Public Utilities Commission

P.U.C.

Real Estate Commission

Real Est. Comm’n

Recorder’s Court

Rec’s Ct.

Southern District

S.D.

Special Court Regional Rail Reorganization Act

Reg’l Rail Reorg. Ct.

Superior Court

Super. Ct.

Supreme Court (federal)

U.S.

Supreme Court (other)

Sup. Ct.

Supreme Court, Appellate Division

App. Div.

Supreme Court, Appellate Term

App. Term

Supreme Court of Errors

Sup. Ct. Err.

Supreme Judicial Court

Sup. Jud. Ct.

103

Surrogate’s Court

Sur. Ct.

Tax Appeal Court

Tax App. Ct.

Tax Court

T.C.

Teen Court

Teen Ct.

Temporary Emergency Court of Appeals

Temp. Emer. Ct. App.

Territor[ial, y]

Terr.

Trademark Trial and Appeal Board

T.T.A.B.

Traffic Court

Traffic Ct.

Tribal Court

{Name} Tribal Ct.

Tribunal

Trib.

Water Court

Water Ct.

Western District

W.D.

Workmen’s Compensation Division

Workmen’s Comp. Div.

Youth Court

Youth Ct.

Table 10 – Geographical Terms

Table 10.1 – U.S. States, Cities, and Territories

States

Alabama

Ala.

Alaska

Arizona

Ariz.

Arkansas

Ark.

California

Cal.

Colorado

Colo.

Connecticut

Conn.

Delaware

Del.

Florida

Fla.

Georgia

Ga.

Hawaii

Haw.

Idaho

Illinois

Ill.

Indiana

Ind.

Iowa

Kansas

Kan.

Kentucky

Ky.

Louisiana

La.

Maine

Me.

Maryland

Md.

Massachusetts

Mass.

Michigan

Mich.

Minnesota

Minn.

Mississippi

Miss.

Missouri

Mo.

Montana

Mont.

Nebraska

Neb.

Nevada

Nev.

104

New Hampshire

N.H.

New Jersey

N.J.

New Mexico

N.M.

New York

N.Y.

North Carolina

N.C.

North Dakota

N.D.

Ohio

Oklahoma

Okla.

Oregon

Or.

Pennsylvania

Pa.

Rhode Island

R.I.

South Carolina

S.C.

South Dakota

S.D.

Tennessee

Tenn.

Texas

Tex.

Utah

Vermont

Vt.

Virginia

Va.

Washington

Wash.

West Virginia

W. Va.

Wisconsin

Wis.

Wyoming

Wyo.

Cities

{State} City (e.g., Oklahoma City)

{State Abbrev.} City (e.g., Okla. City)

Baltimore

Balt.

Boston

Bos.

Chicago

Chi.

Dallas

Dall.

District of Columbia

D.C.

Houston

Hous.

Los Angeles

L.A.

Miami

Mia.

New York

N.Y.C.

Philadelphia

Phila.

Phoenix

Phx.

San Francisco

S.F.

Territories

American Samoa

Am. Sam.

Guam

Northern Mariana Islands

N. Mar. I.

Puerto Rico

P.R.

Virgin Islands

V.I.

105

Table 10.2 – Australian States and Canadian Provinces

Australian States

Australian Capital Territory

Austl. Cap. Terr.

New South Wales

N.S.W.

Northern Territory

N. Terr.

Queensland

Queensl.

South Australia

S. Austl.

Tasmania

Tas.

Victoria

Vict.

Western Australia

W. Austl.

Canadian Provinces

Alberta

Alta.

British Columbia

B.C.

Manitoba

Man.

New Brunswick

N.B.

Newfoundland & Labrador

Nfld.

Northwest Territories

N.W.T.

Nova Scotia

N.S.

Nunavut

Nun.

Ontario

Ont.

Prince Edward Island

P.E.I.

Québec

Que.

Saskatchewan

Sask.

Yukon

Table 10.3 – Countries and Regions

Afghanistan

Afg.

Africa

Afr.

Albania

Alb.

Algeria

Alg.

Andorra

Angola

Angl.

Anguilla

Antarctica

Antigua & Barbuda

Ant. & Barb.

Argentina

Arg.

Armenia

Arm.

Asia

Australia

Austl.

Austria

Azerbaijan

Azer.

Bahamas

Bah.

Bahrain

Bahr.

Bangladesh

Bangl.

Barbados

Barb.

Belarus

Belr.

106

Belgium

Belg.

Belize

Benin

Bermuda

Berm.

Bhutan

Bolivia

Bol.

Bosnia & Herzegovina

Bosn. & Herz.

Botswana

Bots.

Brazil

Braz.

Brunei

Bulgaria

Bulg.

Burkina Faso

Burk. Faso

Burundi

Cambodia

Cameroon

Canada

Can.

Cape Verde

Cayman Islands

Cayman Is.

Central African Republic

Cent. Afr. Rep.

Chad

Chile

China, People’s Republic of

China

Colombia

Colom.

Comoros

Congo, Democratic Republic of the

Dem. Rep. Congo

Congo, Republic of the

Congo

Costa Rica

Côte d’Ivoire

Croatia

Croat.

Cuba

Cyprus

Czech Republic / Czechia

Czech

Denmark

Den.

Djibouti

Djib.

Dominica

Dominican Republic

Dom. Rep.

Ecuador

Egypt

El Salvador

El Sal.

England

Eng.

Equatorial Guinea

Eq. Guinea

Eritrea

Eri.

Estonia

Est.

Ethiopia

Eth.

Europe

Eur.

107

Falkland Islands

Falkland Is.

Fiji

Finland

Fin.

France

Fr.

Gabon

Gambia

Gam.

Georgia

Geor.

Germany

Ger.

Ghana

Gibraltar

Gib.

Great Britain

Gr. Brit.

Greece

Greenland

Green.

Grenada

Gren.

Guadeloupe

Guad.

Guatemala

Guat.

Guinea

Guinea-Bissau

Guyana

Guy.

Haiti

Honduras

Hond.

Hong Kong

H.K.

Hungary

Hung.

Iceland

Ice.

India

Indonesia

Indon.

Iran

Iraq

Ireland

Ir.

Israel

Isr.

Italy

It.

Jamaica

Jam.

Japan

Jordan

Kazakhstan

Kaz.

Kenya

Kiribati

Korea, North

N. Kor.

Korea, South

S. Kor.

Kosovo

Kos.

Kuwait

Kyrgyzstan

Kyrg.

Laos

Latvia

Lat.

Lebanon

Leb.

108

Lesotho

Liberia

Liber.

Libya

Liechtenstein

Liech.

Lithuania

Lith.

Luxembourg

Lux.

Macau

Mac.

Macedonia

Maced.

Madagascar

Madag.

Malawi

Malaysia

Malay.

Maldives

Mali

Malta

Marshall Islands

Marsh. Is.

Martinique

Mart.

Mauritania

Mauritius

Mexico

Mex.

Micronesia

Micr.

Moldova

Mold.

Monaco

Mongolia

Mong.

Montenegro

Montserrat

Morocco

Mozambique

Mozam.

Myanmar

Myan.

Namibia

Namib.

Nauru

Nepal

Netherlands

Neth.

New Zealand

N.Z.

Nicaragua

Nicar.

Niger

Nigeria

North America

N. Am.

Northern Ireland

N. Ir.

Norway

Nor.

Oman

Pakistan

Pak.

Palau

Panama

Pan.

Papua New Guinea

Papua N.G.

Paraguay

Para.

109

Peru

Philippines

Phil.

Pitcairn Island

Pitcairn Is.

Poland

Pol.

Portugal

Port.

Qatar

Réunion

Romania

Rom.

Russia

Russ.

Rwanda

Saint Helena

St. Helena

Saint Kitts & Nevis

St. Kitts & Nevis

Saint Lucia

St. Lucia

Saint Vincent & the Grenadines

St. Vincent

Samoa

San Marino

São Tomé and Príncipe

São Tomé & Príncipe

Saudi Arabia

Scotland

Scot.

Senegal

Sen.

Serbia

Serb.

Seychelles

Sey.

Sierra Leone

Singapore

Sing.

Slovakia

Slovk.

Slovenia

Slovn.

Solomon Islands

Solom. Is.

Somalia

Som.

South Africa

S. Afr.

South America

S. Am.

Spain

Sri Lanka

Sudan

Suriname

Surin.

Swaziland

Swaz.

Sweden

Swed.

Switzerland

Switz.

Syria

Taiwan

Tajikistan

Taj.

Tanzania

Tanz.

Thailand

Thai.

Timor-Leste (East Timor)

Timor-Leste

Togo

Tonga

110

Trinidad & Tobago

Trin. & Tobago

Tunisia

Tunis.

Turkey

Turk.

Turkmenistan

Turkm.

Turks & Caicos Islands

Turks & Caicos Is.

Tuvalu

Uganda

Ukraine

Ukr.

United Arab Emirates

U.A.E.

United Kingdom

U.K.

United States of America

U.S.

Uruguay

Uru.

Uzbekistan

Uzb.

Vanuatu

Vatican City

Vatican

Venezuela

Venez.

Vietnam

Viet.

Virgin Islands, British

Virgin Is.

Wales

Yemen

Zambia

Zam.

Zimbabwe

Zim.

Table 12 – Months

January

Jan.

February

Feb.

March

Mar.

April

Apr.

May

June

July

August

Aug.

September

Sept.

October

Oct.

November

Nov.

December

Dec.

Table 16 – Subdivisions

addendum

add.

amendment

amend.

annotation

annot.

appendi[x, ces]

app., apps.

article

art.

attachment

attach.

bibliography

ibliog.

book

chapter

ch.

111

clause

cl.

column

col.

comment[ary]

cmt.

decision

dec.

department

dept.

division

div.

example

ex.

figure

fig.

folio

fol.

footnote[s] in cross-references

note, notes

footnote[s] in other references

n., nn.

historical note[s]

hist. n., hist. nn.

hypothetical

hypo.

illustration[s]

illus.

introduction

intro.

line[s]

l., ll.

number

no.

page[s] in cross-references

p., pp.

page[s] in other references

[at]

paragraph[s] if symbol appears in source

¶, ¶¶

paragraph[s] if otherwise

para., paras.

part

pt.

preamble

pmbl.

principle

princ.

publication

pub.

rule

schedule

sched.

section[s] in amending act

sec., secs.

section[s] in all other contexts

§, §§

series, serial

ser.

subdivision

subdiv.

subsection

subsec.

supplement

supp.

table

tbl.

title

tit.

volume

vol.