DOE HANDBOOK Radiological Worker Training

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

December 2007

DOE HANDBOOK

Radiological Worker Training

U.S. Department of Energy AREA TRNG

Washington, D.C. 20585

DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A. Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

NOT MEASUREMENT

SENSITIVE

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

This document has been reproduced directly from the best available copy.

Available to DOE and DOE contractors from ES&H Technical Information Services, U.S.

Department of Energy, (800) 473-4375, fax: (301) 903-9823.

Available to the public from the U.S. Department of Commerce, Technology Administration,

National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA 22161; (703) 605-6000.

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

iii

Foreword

This Handbook describes an implementation process for core training as recommended in chapter 14 to

Implementation Guide G441.1-1B , Radiation Protection Programs for Use with Title 10, Code of

Federal Regulations, Part 835, Occupational Radiation Protection, and as outlined in the DOE standard,

Radiological Control (RCS). The Handbook is meant to assist those individuals within the Department of

Energy, Managing and Operating contractors, and Managing and Integrating contractors identified as

having responsibility for implementing core training recommended by the RCS. This training is intended

for radiological workers to assist in meeting their job-specific training requirements of 10 CFR 835.

While this Handbook addresses many requirements of 10 CFR 835 Subpart J, it must be supplemented

with facility/site-specific information to achieve full compliance.

This Handbook contains recommended training materials consistent with other DOE radiological training

materials. The training material consists of the following documents:

Program Management Guide

- This document contains detailed information on how to use the

Handbook material.

Instructor’s Guide

- This document contains a lesson plan for instructor use, including notation of

key points for inclusion of facility/site-specific information. Instructor’s notes are added

parenthetically through the text in Italic.

Student’s Guide

- This document contains student handout material and also should be augmented

by facility/site-specific information.

This Handbook was produced in Word format. Copies of this Handbook may be obtained from the DOE

Radiation Safety Training Home Page Internet site

(http://www.hss.energy.gov/radiation/RST/rstmater.htm) or the DOE Technical Standards Program

Internet site (http://www.hss.energy.gov/NuclearSafety/techstds/standard/standard.html).

Documents downloaded from the DOE Radiation Safety Training Home Page Internet site may be

manipulated using the software noted above.

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DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Part 1 of 3

Radiological Worker Training

Program Management Guide

Coordinated and Conducted

for the

Office of Health, Safety and Security

U.S. Department of Energy

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iii

Table of Contents

Page

Introduction.................................................................................................................................................1

Purpose and Scope..................................................................................................................................1

Compliance with 10 CFR 835-Subpart J................................................................................................ 1

Goal of Training Program ......................................................................................................................2

Organizational Relationships and Reporting Structure .......................................................................... 2

Training Program Descriptions.................................................................................................................2

Overview of Training Program ..............................................................................................................2

Description of Programs.........................................................................................................................3

Radiological Fundamentals....................................................................................................................3

Biological Effects...................................................................................................................................4

Radiation Dose Limits............................................................................................................................ 4

ALARA Program ...................................................................................................................................4

Personnel Monitoring Programs.............................................................................................................4

Radiological Access Controls and Postings ........................................................................................... 5

Radiological Emergencies...................................................................................................................... 5

Practical Factors for RW I......................................................................................................................5

High /Very High Radiation Area Training............................................................................................. 6

Practical Factors for High Radiation Areas............................................................................................6

Radiological Worker II...........................................................................................................................7

Radioactive Contamination Control....................................................................................................... 8

Practical Factors for RW II ....................................................................................................................8

Specialized Radiological Worker Training ............................................................................................9

Refresher Training.................................................................................................................................. 9

Proficiency Requirements ....................................................................................................................10

Retraining.............................................................................................................................................11

Instructor Training and Qualifications .................................................................................................12

Training Program Material Development.............................................................................................. 13

Training Material Presentation.............................................................................................................13

Training Certificates.............................................................................................................................13

Training Aids........................................................................................................................................14

Training Program Standards and Policies ............................................................................................14

Training Examinations ......................................................................................................................... 14

Lectures, Seminars, Training Exercises, etc......................................................................................... 16

Delinquent Training/Failure Procedures and Policies..........................................................................16

Exceptions and Waivers.......................................................................................................................17

Administration .......................................................................................................................................... 17

Training Records.................................................................................................................................. 17

Training Program Development/Change Requests .............................................................................. 17

Audits (internal and external)...............................................................................................................17

Evaluating Training Program Effectiveness.........................................................................................18

References.................................................................................................................................................. 20

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Radiological Worker Training Program Management Guide

Introduction

Purpose and Scope

This guide describes the DOE Radiological Worker I and II (RW I and II) training

programs. It includes standards and policies as well as recommendations for material

development and program administration. It is intended for use by the DOE and DOE

contractors for the development of facility/site-specific radiological worker training.

Compliance with 10 CFR 835-Subpart J

The DOE core training materials for RW Training reflect the requirements identified in

10 CFR 835-Subpart J, “Radiation Safety Training” and recommendations identified in

chapter 14, Radiation Safety Training, of DOE Implementation Guide G441.1-1B,

Radiation Protection Programs for Use with Title 10, Code of Federal Regulations, Part

835, Occupational Radiation Protection Radiation Safety Training, and in the DOE

standard, Radiological Control. When implemented in its entirety and supplemented as

noted with appropriate facility/site-specific information, this Handbook will generally

meet the requirements of 10 CFR 835-Subpart J for radiological worker training.

However, it is incumbent on management of each facility/site to review the content of

this course against the radiological hazards present to ensure that the training content is

appropriate to each individual’s prior training, anticipated and actual assignments, and

degree of exposure to potential radiological hazards.

Training described in this Handbook does not eliminate the need for additional training

for facility/site-specific hazards. Notations throughout the program documents indicate

the need for facility/site-specific information. If the noted section is not applicable to the

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facility/site, no information is required to be presented. The site Radiological Control

Manager or designee should concur in facility/site-generated radiological training

material.

Goal of Training Program

The goal of the core training program is to provide a high level of knowledge and skills

in radiological fundamentals for the radiological worker at all DOE facilities.

Organizational Relationships and Reporting Structure

DOE Office of Worker Safety and Health Policy (DOE HS-11) is responsible for

approving and maintaining the training materials associated with the RW I and II training

programs.

The establishment of a comprehensive and effective contractor site radiological control

training program is the responsibility of line management and their subordinates. The

training function may be performed by a separate training organization, but the

responsibility for quality and effectiveness rests with line management.

Training Program Descriptions

Overview of Training Program

Radiological Worker I Training is intended for radiological workers whose job

assignments require unescorted access to Radiological Buffer Areas, Radiation Areas, or

Radioactive Materials Areas. The RW I program consists of the core academic material

plus the appropriate practical factors evaluation and lessons learned.

The High/Very High Radiation (HR/VHR) Area module may be added to the

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Radiological Worker I course to give personnel unescorted entry into High Radiation

Areas where contamination is not present.

Radiological Worker II Training is intended for radiological workers whose job

assignments involve unescorted entry to High Radiation Areas, Contamination Areas,

High Contamination Areas and Airborne Radioactivity Areas. Further, workers who

have potential contact with hot particles or use of gloveboxes with high contamination

levels should complete Radiological Worker II training.

The RW II program consists of the RW core academic material, the HR/VHR Area

module (this may be deleted for certain sites, such as uranium mill tailings remediation

projects, which do not have HR/VHR Areas), the Contamination Control module, the

applicable practical factors evaluation, and lessons learned.

Description of Programs

Core Academic Material is approximately 8 hours in length but will vary dependent upon

the amount of facility/site-specific material. RW Core Academic Training includes the

following modules (1-7):

Radiological Fundamentals (Module 1)

• Atomic Structure

• Definitions and Units of Measure

• The Four Basic Types of Ionizing Radiation

• Units of Measure for Radiation

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Biological Effects (Module 2)

• Sources of Radiation

• Effects of Radiation on Cells

• Acute and Chronic Radiation Dose

• Prenatal Radiation Exposure

• Risks in Perspective

Radiation Dose Limits (Module 3)

• Basis for and Purpose of Radiation Dose Limits and

• Administrative Control Levels

• Dose Limits and Administrative Control Levels

• Worker Responsibilities Regarding Dose Limits

ALARA Program (Module 4)

• ALARA Program

• Responsibilities for the ALARA Program

• External and Internal Dose Reduction

• Radioactive Waste Minimization

Personnel Monitoring Programs (Module 5)

• External Dosimetry

• Internal Monitoring

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• Methods for Obtaining Radiation Dose Records

Radiological Access Controls and Postings (Module 6)

• External Dosimetry

• Internal Monitoring

• Methods for Obtaining Radiation Dose Records

Radiological Emergencies (Module 7)

• Emergency Alarms and Responses

• Radiological Emergency Situations

• Considerations in Rescue and Recovery Operations

Radiological Worker I

Radiological Worker I training consists of the RW core academic material (Modules 1-7)

plus the applicable practical factors (Module 10.1).

Practical Factors for RW I (Module 10.1)

The recommended evaluation for RW I consists of the following topics:

• Review an Appropriate Radiological Work Permit (RWP)

• Record the Appropriate Information on the RWP

• Select and Wear Required Dosimeter(s)

• Enter Simulated Area and Demonstrate ALARA Techniques

• Monitor for Contamination (if RWI trained workers are be allowed unescorted

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access into RBAs established for contamination controls this training may be

necessary per site procedures e.g., if required hand and foot monitoring on

exiting any RBA)

• as necessary per site procedures e.g., hand and foot monitoring on exiting any

RBA)

• Respond to Emergency Situations or Abnormal Radiological Situations

It may be necessary for an RW I qualified individual to enter a HR Area. If this becomes

necessary, then the HR/VHR training should be presented, along with the applicable

practical factors (Modules 10.1 and/or 10.2).

High/Very High Radiation Area Training (Module 8)

The materials for the HR/VHR Area Module include the following:

• High and Very High Radiation Area Definitions

• Signs and Postings

• Entry, Work In, and Exit from High Radiation Areas

• Access Controls for High and Very High Radiation Areas

Practical Factors for High Radiation Areas (Module 10.2)

The recommended evaluation for RW I (High Radiation Area) consists of entry, work,

and exit requirements:

• Identify High Radiation Area and Very High Radiation Area signs

• State special controls on RWP

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• State area radiation levels (with appropriate units)

• State facility/site-specific administrative control levels

• Select dosimetry in accordance with RWP

• Wear dosimetry in accordance with procedures

• Perform pre-operational checks (as appropriate) on survey meter and/or dose rate

indicating device

• Record appropriate information on RWP prior to entry

• Verify current radiation survey prior to first entry

• Enter only areas designated on RWP

• Maximize distance from higher radiation areas

• Do not loiter

• State appropriate actions to take when a radiation area monitor alarms

• Record appropriate information on RWP upon exit

• Perform periodic checks of personnel dosimetry devices

Radiological Worker II

RW II Core Training is approximately 16 hours in length but will vary dependent on the

amount of facility/site-specific material. RW II includes the core academic material

modules (1 - 7), HR/VHR Area module (8), Contamination Control module (9), and RW

II Practical Exercise module (10.3).

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Radioactive Contamination Control (Module 9)

The radioactive contamination control module includes the following topics:

• Comparison of Ionizing Radiation and Radioactive

Contamination

• Types of Contamination

• Sources of Radioactive Contamination

• Contamination Control Methods

• Contamination Monitoring Equipment

• Decontamination

• Types of Contamination Areas

• Lessons Learned

Practical Factors for RW II (Module 10.3)

The recommended evaluation for RW II consists of the following topics:

• Review an Appropriate Radiological Work Permit (RWP)

• Record the Appropriate Information on the RWP

• Select Required Dosimeter(s) and Protective Clothing

• Don Protective Clothing and Dosimeter(s)

• Enter Simulated Area and Demonstrate Contamination Control Practices

• Remove Protective Clothing and Dosimeter(s)

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• Monitor for Contamination

• Respond to emergency situations or abnormal radiological situations

Specialized Radiological Worker Training

Specialized Radiological Worker Training should be completed for non-routine

operations or work in areas with changing radiological conditions. This training is in

addition to Radiological Worker II training and is required for personnel planning,

preparing, and performing jobs that have the potential for high radiological

consequences. Such jobs may involve special containment devices, the use of mockups,

and ALARA considerations. In some cases, depending on facility/site-specific criteria,

pre-job briefings provide an acceptable alternative to Specialized Radiological Worker

Training.

Individuals who install, inspect, or work in radiological containments shall be trained

commensurate with their duties. Individuals that wear respiratory protection need to be

medically qualified and wear the equipment as trained in accordance with OSHA

standards and DOE requirements. This training is in addition to Radiological Worker II

training.

Refresher Training

Refresher training programs for RW I and II training may be implemented in the alternate

year when full retraining is not completed or in response to observations or indications of

poor radiological performance. Refresher training is intended to maintain and enhance

the proficiency of the worker. The refresher training for RW I and II training should be

documented.

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RW I and II refresher training may be accomplished through any available media. This

may include video, handout, computer- based training or classroom training.

RW I and II refresher training should include changes in requirements and lessons

learned from operations and maintenance experience, and occurrence reporting for the

site and across the DOE complex. The following topics may be included:

• New procedures and changes to existing procedures

• New equipment and changes or modifications to existing equipment or facilities

• Lessons learned from facility/site operating experiences

• Lessons learned from industry operating experiences

• Identified deficiencies from post training evaluations

Proficiency Requirements

In accordance with 10 CFR 835-Subpart J, each individual shall demonstrate knowledge

of the radiation safety training topics established in § 835-Subpart J, commensurate with

the hazards in the area and required controls, by successful completion of an examination

and performance demonstrations prior to being permitted unescorted access to

radiological areas and prior to performing unescorted assignments as a radiological

worker.

A written examination and a practical factors evaluation shall be used to demonstrate

satisfactory completion of RW I, HR/VHR Area, and RW II training (10 CFR 835 -

Subpart J). These exams may be combined into one exam if the training is presented as

one training class.

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• The minimum passing score for any written examination should be 80%.

• A minimum passing score on the practical evaluation (i.e., the evaluation of the

practical demonstration) should be 80%.

• Computer-based and other electronic methods of examination are acceptable.

If computer-based training and examination are used, sites need to ensure that the testing

process is adequate to meet the requirement that individuals demonstrate an acceptable

baseline knowledge level of radiation protection fundamentals and practices. Programs

which allow trainee to pass the examination based on trial and error or allow unlimited

attempts without requiring retraining would be inconsistent with the requirement that

individuals demonstrate an acceptable baseline knowledge level of radiation protection

fundamentals and practices.

Retraining

In accordance with 10 CFR 835-Subpart J, RW retraining shall be provided to individuals

when there is a significant change to radiation protection policies and procedures that

may affect the individual and at intervals not to exceed 24 months. The requirements of

10 CFR 835-Subpart J for examination apply.

Retraining should include selected fundamentals of the initial training with

emphasis on seldom-used knowledge and skills. Retraining should be tailored to

subjects for which trainee evaluations and experience indicate that special

emphasis and depth of coverage is needed.

A self-study method may be used, when possible, for retraining. A suggestion for

a self-study method is to allow the workers to self study the training material;

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present any updates or changes, lessons learned, etc.; then allow the workers to

take the examination and applicable practical exercise.

Minimum requirements for RW I and RW II retraining should be successful

completion of the written examination (10 CFR 835 required), practical exercise,

practical exercise, and training on lessons learned/new procedures.

Materials developed in support of retraining shall be documented, as necessary, in

accordance with 10 CFR 835.704 “Administrative Records.”

Instructor Training and Qualifications

All classroom instruction should be provided by instructors qualified in accordance with

the contractor’s site instructor qualification program. Training staff (contractor and

subcontractor, if used) should possess both technical knowledge and experience, and the

developmental and instructional skills required to fulfill their assigned duties.

1. Training staff responsible for program management, supervision, and

development should have and maintain the education, experience, and technical

qualifications required for their jobs.

2. Instructors should have the technical qualifications, which include adequate

theory, practical knowledge, and experience for the subject matter that they are

assigned to teach.

3. Methods should be in place at each contractor site to ensure that individual

instructors meet and maintain position qualification requirements.

4. Subject matter experts, without instructor qualification, may provide training in

their area of expertise. However, if these subject matter experts are to be

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permanent instructors, they should be trained as instructors in the next practical

training cycle. Qualifications for trainers at nuclear facilities can be found in

DOE Order 5480.20A, “Personnel Selection, Qualification, and Training

Requirements for DOE Nuclear Facilities.”

Training Program Material Development

Training Material Presentation

Training materials for the core programs consist of lesson plans and study guides. To

ensure compliance with 10 CFR 835-Subpart J, facility/site-specific materials must be

added to the core materials when necessary to adequately train individuals for

facility/site-specific radiological hazards.

Training Certificates

A training certificate that identifies current training status of core training may be

provided to qualified personnel. Each facility/site is responsible to administer and track

the certificates. Facilities have the option of utilizing the certificates as proof of training.

However, it should be noted that 10 CFR 835-Subpart J requires each facility/site to

ensure radiological workers have adequate training for the hazards present. The training

certificate from another DOE site does not, in itself, relieve the facility/site from ensuring

the worker has had adequate training.

It is appropriate for facilities to supplement a visiting radiological worker’s training with

facility/site-specific training sufficient to ensure an adequate level of training for the

hazards present. It may also be appropriate to confirm the adequacy of the worker’s

training with a standard examination and practical evaluation.

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Training Aids

Facility/site-specific training aids may be developed at the facility/site to suit individual

training styles. Each facility/site may add information, activities, a glossary, and/or view

graphs to enhance their program.

Training Program Standards and Policies

Training Examinations

Written examinations and/or computer-based training (CBT) examinations shall be used

to demonstrate satisfactory completion of theoretical and classroom material for RW I

and RW II. The examinations should:

• Be completed with a minimum passing grade of 80%,

• Cover material representative of the learning objectives from both core material

and facility/site-specific material,

• Be varied from class to class and within classes when the class size is large,

• Not use true/false questions,

• Not allow completion via trial and error, and

• Be acknowledged by trainee signature participation in a post-examination review.

An example core examination question bank is available from DOE HS-11. Each

question in the examination bank should be numbered in accordance with the

corresponding learning objective. All questions should consist of the multiple choice

type question.

The facility/site should develop an appropriate exam bank, and the DOE example

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questions may be used as a basis. Example questions may be used verbatim, but the

order of answers should be changed. The DOE example exam bank is not held

confidential. The facility/site exam bank should be held confidential in accordance with

facility/site practices for exam confidentiality. The practice should ensure students do

not have knowledge of specific answer keys.

Rad Worker I Written Examination: The Rad Worker I exam is the responsibility of

each facility/site and should consist of a minimum of thirty (30) questions.

The remedial action for failure of this examination is the responsibility of each

facility/site.

HR/VHR Area Written Examinations: The HR/VHR Area exam is the responsibility

of each facility/site and should consist of a minimum of five (5) questions.

The remedial action for failure of this examination is the responsibility of each

facility/site.

Rad Worker Written II Examinations: The Rad Worker II exam is the responsibility

of each facility/site and should consist of a minimum of fifty (50) questions. The

remedial action for failure of this examination is the responsibility of each facility/site.

Initial challenge examinations may be appropriate for experienced radiological workers

and those with current qualifications at another DOE facility/site. They should be

designed to cover the core RW training core learning objectives only. Challenges should

not apply to facility/site-specific topics. Each learning objective should be represented

on the challenge examination. Failure of a challenge examination should result in the

attendance of a scheduled initial training session. Successful completion of the initial

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challenge examination does not exempt the employee from the facility/site-specific

examination, practical factors evaluation, and training in lessons learned/new procedures.

Practical Factors Evaluation: A practical factors evaluation should be used to

demonstrate satisfactory completion skills for RW I, RW I HR/VHR Area, and RW II

training. A minimum score of 80% should be attained for each practical factor

evaluation. The criteria for a satisfactory score is outlined in the attachments to the

Instructor’s Guide. Successful completion of the written examination should be a

prerequisite for the practical evaluation.

Lectures, Seminars, Training Exercises, etc.

RW I and II core training programs are designed to be delivered in a classroom setting.

An alternate delivery method may be implemented with CBT equipment. The

presentation of radiological worker training (RWT) should include core materials and

facility/site-specific information. In all cases, regardless of the setting or delivery

method, examination requirements of 10 CFR 835-Subpart J shall be followed.

Delinquent Training/Failure Procedures and Policies

Radiological workers who are delinquent on retraining shall lose their Radiological

Worker access status until successful completion of the delinquent training requirement.

These workers shall not be allowed unescorted entry into associated radiological areas.

Currently trained radiological workers who fail a challenge or retraining exam shall lose

their training status until successful completion of the examination and practical factors

evaluation. These workers should not be allowed unescorted entry into associated

controlled/radiological areas.

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Exceptions and Waivers

Successful completion of the core courses for RW I, RW I HR/VHR Area, and RW II

training at one DOE site may be recognized by other DOE sites. However, the

determination as to the adequacy of training as required by 10 CFR 835-Subpart J is the

responsibility of the facility/site. It may be appropriate to accept this training as the basis

for a challenge exam covering generic topics. However, this training may not adequately

cover facility/site-specific topics.

Administration

Training Records

Training records and course documentation shall meet the requirements of 10 CFR

835.704 “Administration Records” and be in accordance with local DOE Records

Disposition Schedules.

Training Program Development/Change Requests

All requests for program changes and revisions should be submitted to HS-11 using the

DOE Technical Standard Program form “Document Improvement Proposal” F 1300.3.

This form is available from the DOE Technical Standards Home Page - Maintenance of

DOE Technical Standards TSPP-09). (See the Foreword of this document for website

address).

Audits (internal and external)

Internal verification of training effectiveness may be accomplished through senior

instructor or supervisor observation of practical applications and discussions of course

material. Results shall be documented and should be maintained by the organization

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Radiological Worker Training Program Management Guide

responsible for Radiological Control Training.

The RW I, RW I HR/VHR Area, and RW II core training program materials and

processes will be evaluated on a periodic basis by DOE-HQ. The evaluation should

include a comparison of program elements with applicable industry standards and

requirements.

Evaluating Training Program Effectiveness

Verification of the effectiveness of Radiological Control training should be accomplished

by surveying a limited subset of former students in the workplace. This evaluation

should include observation of practical applications, discussion of the course material,

and may include an associated written examination. DOE/HS has issued guidelines for

evaluating the effectiveness of radiological training through the DOE Operations Offices

and DOE Field Offices.

These guidelines are included as an attachment to the Program Management Guide to

DOE Handbook, General Employee Radiological Training.

For additional guidance, refer to DOE STD 1070-94, “Guide for Evaluation of Nuclear

Facility/site Training Programs.” The guidelines contained in these documents are

relevant for the establishment and implementation of post-training evaluation and

retention testing programs.

In response to the Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety Board (DNFSB) Recommendation

91-6, DOE committed to develop an implementation plan to upgrade radiation protection

programs at DOE defense nuclear facilities.

The implementation plan detailed DOE’s plans to develop and implement radiation

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protection post-training evaluation and retention testing programs. Post-training

evaluations will be used to identify opportunities for improving course materials,

upgrading instruction methods and techniques, and the need for additional training.

Retention testing will indicate when individual performance or testing fails to meet

expectations. Corrective actions for deficiencies identified in retention testing will be

incorporated in the individual’s development plan and the site’s training program on an

appropriate schedule.

In addition, Article 613.7 of the DOE Radiological Control Standard states that sites

should implement a training effectiveness verification program. This program, which is

in addition to performance evaluations routinely performed by the site’s training

department, is to verify the effectiveness of radiological control training by surveying a

limited subset of former students in the workplace. This recommendation applies to both

DOE defense nuclear facilities and DOE facilities not classified as defense nuclear

facilities.

Per DOE’s commitment to DNFSB, it is expected that all defense nuclear facilities will

implement these or equivalent programs. DOE facilities not classified as defense nuclear

facilities should also strive to implement such programs. Line management should

monitor progress of program implementation.

The guidance contained in DOE STD-1070-94 is not meant to be prescriptive. Training

organizations should review this guidance and determine its applicability, taking into

consideration the existence of similar programs already in place at their facility/site.

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References (these references are for the entire Handbook 1130)

1. Cohen, Bernard L., “Catalog of Risks Extended and Updated,” Health Physics, the Radiation

Protection Journal, Vol. 61, 1991.

2. “Investigation Report C-337-A, Contamination Incident at the Paducah Gaseous Diffusion Plant on

August 23, 1991,” September 1991.

3. NCRP, “Ionizing Radiation Exposure of the Population of the United States,” Report No. 93.

4. ORAU 88/H-99, “Guide to Good Practice in Radiation Protection Training.”

5. Travis, E. L., “Primer of Medical Radiobiology,” 1989.

6. U.S. Department of Energy, “Radiation Protection Program Guide for Use with 10 CFR 835,

Occupational Radiation Protection,” 2007.

7. U.S. Department of Energy, DOE Radiological Control Standard

, 1999.

8. U.S. Department of Energy, “Occupational Radiation Protection,” 10 CFR 835, 2007.

9. U.S. Department of Energy, “Reproductive Health: Effects of Chemical and Radiation on Fertility

and the Unborn Child,” Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, February 1, 1984.

10. U.S. Department of Energy, Order 5480.20A, Ch. 1, “Personnel Selection, Qualification, and

Training Requirements For DOE Nuclear Facilities,” November, 2001.

11. U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Radiological Health Handbook

, January 1970.

12. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, “Instruction Concerning Prenatal Radiation Exposure,” U.S.

NRC Regulatory Guide 8.13, December 1987.

13. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, “Instruction Concerning Risks From Occupational Radiation

Exposure,” U.S. NRC Regulatory Guide 8.29

, Version I, February 1997.

14. Wallace, Susan S., and Robert B. Painter, Editors., “Ionizing Radiation Damage to DNA: Molecular

Aspects,” UCLA Symposia on Molecular and Cellular Biology, New Series, Vol. 136, Wiley-Liss, Y.

1990.

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(Part 2 of 3)

Radiological Worker Training

Instructor’s Guide

Coordinated and Conducted

for

Office of Health, Safety and Security

U.S. Department of Energy

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Table of Contents

Page

Training Program Overview ........................................................................................................................iv

MODULE 1: RADIOLOGICAL FUNDAMENTALS................................................................................ 1

MODULE 2: BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS ...................................................................................................14

MODULE 3: RADIATION DOSE LIMITS AND ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROL LEVELS............. 28

MODULE 4: ALARA PROGRAM........................................................................................................... 36

MODULE 5: PERSONNEL MONITORING PROGRAMS.....................................................................45

MODULE 6: RADIOLOGICAL ACCESS CONTROLS AND POSTINGS ...........................................50

MODULE 7: RADIOLOGICAL EMERGENCIES ..................................................................................64

MODULE 8: HIGH/VERY HIGH RADIATION AREA TRAINING ..................................................... 69

MODULE 9: RADIOACTIVE CONTAMINATION CONTROL ............................................................76

MODULE 10.1: PRACTICAL FACTORS FOR RADIOLOGICAL WORKER I.................................... 89

MODULE 10.2: PRACTICAL FACTORS FOR HIGH RADIATION AREAS ......................................95

MODULE 10.3: PRACTICAL FACTORS FOR RADIOLOGICAL WORKER II ...............................100

ATTACHMENT 1 - Instructions for Evaluators ......................................................................................108

ATTACHMENT 2 - Sample Grading Checklist for RW II...................................................................... 117

ATTACHMENT 3 - Sample Job Scenario ...............................................................................................118

ATTACHMENT 4 - Sample Survey Map................................................................................................119

ATTACHMENT 5 - Sample Questions.................................................................................................... 120

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Training Program Overview

DOE Radiological Health and Safety (DOE P 441.1) Safety Policy.

“It is the policy of the Department of Energy to conduct its radiological operations in a manner that

ensures the health and safety of all its employees, contractors, and the general public. In achieving this

objective, the Department shall ensure that radiation exposures to its workers and the public and releases

of radioactivity to the environment are maintained below regulatory limits and deliberate efforts are

taken to further reduce exposures and releases as low as reasonably achievable. The Department is fully

committed to implementing a radiological control program of the highest quality that consistently reflects

this policy.”

In meeting this policy, the Department shall:

“Ensure personnel responsible for performing radiological work activities are appropriately trained.

Standards shall be established to ensure the technical competency of the Department’s workforce, as

appropriate, through implementation of radiological training and professional development programs.”

A. DOE Course Design

The DOE training material for radiological workers consists of four areas.

1. Core Academics (Modules 1-7)

This area includes modules 1 through 7. These modules discuss the theory that a worker should

know to work safely around radiological hazards.

The core academics are recommended for radiological workers whose job assignments limit

required unescorted access to Radiological Buffer Areas, Radiation Areas, and Radioactive

Material Areas.

2. High/Very High Radiation Area (Module 8)

This module should be added to the core academics for personnel whose job assignments require

unescorted entry into High Radiation Areas where contamination is not present or whose job

assignments require accessing High/Very High Radiation Areas.

3. Contamination Control (Module 9)

This module is recommended for workers who require unescorted access to Contamination, High

Contamination, and/or Airborne Radioactivity Areas.

4. Practical Factors Evaluations (Module 10)

This module contains generic practical exercises that provide hands-on experience for the worker.

These exercises are for the levels of training needed by different radiological workers.

B. Overview of Courses

The DOE training material can be divided into the following levels of radiological worker training:

1. Radiological Worker I (RW I) Training

This course contains the core academics and the appropriate practical factors. This training is for

radiological workers whose job assignments require access to Radiological Buffer Areas,

Radioactive Materials Areas and Radiation Areas. RW I training is also suggested for unescorted

entry into Radioactive Material Areas containing either sealed radioactive sources or radioactive

material labeled in accordance with 10 CFR 835.

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

RW I training alone (i.e., High/Very High Radiation Module not included) does not prepare the

worker to work around higher radiation levels or with contaminated materials. It is suggested that

RW I tasks be limited to inspections, tours, and activities that involve work on nonradiological

systems.

2. Radiological Worker I Training with High/Very High Radiation Area Training

This course contains the core academics, the High/Very High Radiation Area (HR/VHR) module,

and the appropriate practical factors. The HR/VHR Area lesson plan may be added to the RW I

course to give personnel unescorted entry into High Radiation Areas where contamination is not a

concern.

3. Radiological Worker II (RW II) Training

This course consists of the core academics, the High/Very High Radiation Area module, the

Contamination Control module, and the appropriate practical factors. This training is

recommended for the radiological worker whose job assignments involve unescorted entry into

High Radiation Areas, Contamination Areas, High Contamination Areas, and Airborne

Radioactivity Areas. Further, workers who have potential contact with hot particles or use

gloveboxes with high contamination levels should complete RW II training.

RW II training prepares the worker to work around higher radiation levels and with contaminated

materials normally associated with radiological facilities/activities.

C. Evaluation Criteria

At the completion of the applicable course, the participant must successfully complete a written exam

and

a practical evaluation to be considered to have successfully completed the training. Successful

completion of the written exam should be a prerequisite for the practical factors evaluation.

1. Written Examination

Successful completion of the written examination typically requires a minimum passing score of

80 percent or equivalent. The written exam is based on the objectives in the theory portion of the

course (Modules 1-7).

2. Practical Factors Evaluation

Successful completion of the practical factors evaluation typically requires a minimum score of 80

percent or equivalent. The practical factors evaluation includes entry into a simulated controlled

work environment. This evaluation is based on the application of the theory portion of the

applicable course (Modules 1-7).

D. Documentation of Training

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

E. Periodic Training and Refresher Training

1. Training

Training is required at intervals not to exceed every 24 months.

2. Refresher Training

Refresher training should be conducted in the off year when periodic training is not due.

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Figure 1

Three Levels of Radiological Worker Training with Associated Training Requirements

Training Modules 1-7

and

Practical Factors 10.1

Radiological Worker I

Radiological Worker I with HRA/VHRA

Radiological Worker II

Training Modules 1-8

and

Practical Factors 10.1

and 10.2

Training Modules 1-9

and

Practical Factors 10.3

or 10.2

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

vii

Figure 2

Evaluation Overview Diagram

Pass Written Exam??

(80%)

Pass Practical Evaluation??

(80%)

RWT

Good to Go!!

(Insert Site-Specific

Failure Policy.)

(Insert Site-Specific

Failure Policy.)

Yes

Pass Written Exam??

> 80%

Pass Practical

Evaluation??

> 80%

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

xii

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DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 1: Radiological Fundamentals

Terminal Objective:

Given various radiological concepts, the participant will be able to define the fundamentals of

radiation, radioactive material, and radioactive contamination in accordance with the approved lesson

materials.

Enabling Objectives:

The participant will be able to select the correct response from a group of responses to verify his/her

ability to:

EO1 Identify the three basic particles of an atom.

EO2 Define radioactive material, radioactivity, radioactive half-life, and radioactive contamination.

EO3 Identify the units used to measure radioactivity and contamination.

EO4 Define ionization and ionizing radiation.

EO5 Distinguish between ionizing radiation and non-ionizing radiation.

EO6 Identify the four basic types of ionizing radiation and the following for each type:

a. Physical characteristics

b. Range

c. Shielding

d. Biological hazard(s)

e. Sources at the site

EO7 Identify the units used to measure radiation.

EO8 Convert rem to millirem and millirem to rem.

Instructional Aids:

1. Student Guide

2. Transparencies

3. Activities (as applicable)

4. Self-check quizzes (as applicable)

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 1: Radiological Fundamentals

II. MODULE INTRODUCTION

A. Self Introduction

1. Name

2. Phone Number

3. Background (Post information in room. Have students introduce themselves: name,

background, etc.)

B. Module Overview

Nuclear science is truly a product of the 20th century. This module will discuss several

nuclear science topics at a basic level appropriate for the radiological worker. These concepts

are necessary for the worker to understand the nature of radiation and its potential effect on

health. The topics covered include basic particles of the atom, types of radiation, and the

definition of units used to measure radiation.

C. Objectives Review

D. Introduction

This module introduces the worker to basic radiological fundamentals and terms that are

common in the DOE complex. After learning the fundamentals of radiation, radioactive

material, and radioactive contamination, the worker will build from the basic to the more in-

depth concepts presented in the other modules.

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 1: Radiological Fundamentals

II. MODULE OUTLINE

A. Atomic Structure

1. The basic unit of matter is the atom. The three basic particles of the atom are protons, neutrons,

and electrons. The central portion of the atom is the nucleus. The nucleus consists of protons

and neutrons. Electrons orbit the nucleus. (EO1 Identify the three basic particles of an atom)

a. Protons

1) Protons are located in the nucleus of the atom.

2) Protons have a positive electrical charge.

3) The number of protons in the nucleus determines the element. (Optional - Insert

diagram of the atom. Have students label the three basic particles)

b. Neutrons

1) Neutrons are located in the nucleus of the atom.

2) Neutrons have no electrical charge.

3) Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, but can have a

different number of neutrons.

4) Atoms which have the same number of protons but different numbers of

neutrons are called isotopes.

NOTE: Common notation for describing isotopes is to list the atomic symbol for

an element followed by its mass number. The mass number is the sum of

protons and neutrons. For example, tritium has 1 proton and 2 neutrons, and is

denoted as H-3.

5) Isotopes have the same chemical properties; however, the nuclear properties can

be quite different.

c. Electrons

1) Electrons are in orbit around the nucleus of an atom.

2) Electrons have a negative electrical charge.

3) This negative charge is equal in magnitude to the proton’s positive charge.

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 1: Radiological Fundamentals

Basic Particles

3 Basic

Particles

Location

Charge

Comments

Protons

Nucleus

(positive)

Number of protons determines

the element. If the number of

protons changes, the element

changes.

Neutrons

Nucleus

No Charge

Atoms of the same element have

the same number of protons, but

can have a different number of

neutrons. This is called an

isotope.

Electrons

Orbit

nucleus

- (negative)

This negative charge is equal in

magnitude to the proton’s

positive charge.

2. Stable and unstable atoms

Only certain combinations of neutrons and protons result in stable atoms.

a. If there are too many or too few neutrons for a given number of protons, the nucleus

will not be stable.

b. The unstable atom will try to become stable by giving off excess energy. This

energy is in the form of particles or rays (radiation). These unstable atoms are

known as radioactive atoms.

3. Charge of the atom

The number of electrons and protons determines the overall electrical charge of the atom.

The term “ion” is used to define atoms or groups of atoms that have a net positive or

negative electrical charge. (Optional - Insert diagram that illustrates the different

charges)

a. No charge (neutral)

If the number of electrons equals the number of protons, the atom is electrically

neutral. This atom does not have a net electrical charge.

b. Positive charge (+)

If there are more protons than electrons, the atom is positively charged.

c. Negative charge (-)

If there are more electrons than protons, the atom is negatively charged.

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 1: Radiological Fundamentals

B. Definitions and Units of Measure

1. Radioactive material (EO2 Define radioactive material)

Radioactive material is any material containing unstable atoms that emit radiation.

Radiation means ionizing radiation: alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, X-rays,

neutrons, high-speed electrons, high-speed protons, and other particles capable of

producing ions. Radiation, as used in this part, does not include non-ionizing radiation,

such as radio waves or microwaves, or visible, infrared, or ultraviolet light. (Give

facility/site-specific examples of radioactive isotopes at the site.)

2. Radioactivity (EO2 Define radioactivity)

Radioactivity is the process of unstable (or radioactive) atoms becoming stable. This is

done by emitting radiation. This process over a period of time is referred to as

radioactive decay. A disintegration is a single atom undergoing radioactive decay. (Give

examples of radioactive decay.)

3. Radioactivity units (EO3 Identify the units used to measure radioactivity)

Radioactivity is measured in the number of disintegrations radioactive material undergoes

in a certain period of time.

a. Disintegrations per minute (dpm)

b. Disintegrations per second (dps)

c. Curie (Ci)

One curie equals:

• 2,200,000,000,000 disintegrations per minute (2.2x10

dpm), or

• 37,000,000,000 disintegrations per second (3.7x10

dps), or

• 1,000,000 microcuries (1x10

µCi).

4. Radioactive half-life (EO2Define radioactive half-life)

Radioactive half-life is the time it takes for one half of the radioactive atoms present to

decay.

5. Radioactive contamination (EO2Define radioactive contamination)

Radioactive contamination is radioactive material that is uncontained and in an unwanted

place. (There are certain places where radioactive material is intended to be.)

Contamination is measured per unit area or volume. (EO3 Identify the units used to

measure contamination)

· dpm/100 cm

· µCi/ml.

6. Ionization (EO4 Define ionization)

Ionization is the process of removing electrons from neutral atoms.

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 1: Radiological Fundamentals

a. Electrons will be removed from an atom if enough energy is supplied. The

remaining atom has a positive (+) charge. The ionized atoms may affect chemical

processes in cells. The ionizations may affect the cell’s ability to function normally.

b. The positively charged atom and the negatively charged electron are called an “ion

pair.”

c. Ionization should not be confused with radiation. Ions (or ion pairs) produced as a

result of the interaction of radiation with an atom allow the detection of radiation.

7. Ionizing radiation (EO4 Define ionizing radiation)

Ionizing radiation is energy (particles or rays) emitted from radioactive atoms, and some

devices, that can cause ionization. Examples of devices that emit ionizing radiation are

X-ray machines, accelerators, and fluoroscopes.

a. It is important to note that exposure to ionizing radiation, without exposure to

radioactive material, will not result in contamination of the worker.

b. Radiation is a type of energy, and contamination is radioactive material that is

uncontained and in an unwanted place.

8. Non-ionizing radiation (EO5 Distinguish between ionizing radiation and non-ionizing

radiation)

a. Electromagnetic radiation that doesn’t have enough energy to ionize an atom is

called “non-ionizing radiation.”

b. Examples of non-ionizing radiation are radar waves, microwaves, and visible light.

C. The Four Basic Types of Ionizing Radiation

The four basic types of ionizing radiation of concern in the DOE complex are alpha

particles, beta particles, gamma or X rays, and neutrons. (EO6 Identify the four basic

types of ionizing radiation and the following for each type:

a. Physical characteristics

b. Range

c. Shielding

d. Biological hazard(s)

e. Sources at the site)

1. Alpha particles

a. Physical characteristics

1) The alpha particle has a large mass and consists of two protons, two neutrons,

and no electrons.

2) It is a highly charged particle (charge of plus two) that is emitted from the

nucleus of an atom.

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 1: Radiological Fundamentals

3) The positive charge causes the alpha particle (+) to strip electrons (-) from

nearby atoms as it passes through the material, thus ionizing these atoms.

b. Range

1) The alpha particle deposits a large amount of energy in a short distance of travel.

2) This large energy deposit limits the penetrating ability of the alpha particle to a

very short distance.

3) Range in air is about 1-2 inches.

c. Shielding

Most alpha particles are stopped by a few centimeters of air, a sheet of paper, or the

dead layer (outer layer) of skin.

d. Biological hazards

1) Alpha particles are not considered an external radiation hazard. This is because

they are easily stopped by the dead layer of skin.

2) Internally, the source of the alpha radiation is in close contact with body tissue

and can deposit large amounts of energy in a small volume of living body tissue.

e. Sources

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

Table 1-2

Alpha Particles

Physical

Characteristics

· Large mass (2 protons, 2 neutrons, 0 electrons).

· +2 charge.

Range

· Very short (about 1-2 inches in air).

· Deposits large amount of energy in a short

distance of travel.

Shielding

· Few centimeters of air.

· Sheet of paper.

· Dead layer of skin (outer layer).

Biological

Hazards

· No external hazard (dead layer of skin will stop

alpha particles).

· Internally, the source of alpha radiation is in close

contact with body tissue. It can deposit large amounts

of energy in a small amount of body tissue.

Sources

Insert facility/site-specific information.

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 1: Radiological Fundamentals

2. Beta particles

a. Physical characteristics

1) The beta particle has a small mass and is positively or negatively charged.

Positively charged beta particles are called positrons and have an electrical charge of

plus one. Negatively charged beta particles are high-energy electrons and have an

electrical charge of minus one.

2) A negatively charged beta particle is physically identical to an electron.

3) The beta particle ionizes target atoms due to the force between itself and the

electrons of the atom. Both have a charge of minus one.

b. Range

1) Because of its charge, the beta particle has a limited penetrating ability.

2) The range in air of beta particles depends on the energy of the beta particle. In the

case of tritium (H-3), the range is only an inch; in the case of phosphorous-32 (P-32)

or strontium-90 (Sr-90), the range is 20 feet in air.

c. Shielding

Beta particles are typically shielded by plastic, glass, or safety glasses.

d. Biological hazards

1) If ingested or inhaled, a beta emitter can be an internal hazard when the source of the

beta radiation is in close contact with body tissue and can deposit energy in a small

volume of living body tissue.

2) Externally, beta particles are potentially hazardous to the skin and eyes.

3) Provide facility/site-specific information on the additional risks or concerns from

high-energy beta sources (e.g., P-32, Y-90), as appropriate.

e. Sources

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 1: Radiological Fundamentals

Table 1-3

Beta Particles

Physical

Characteristics

· Small mass.

· -1 charge or + 1 charge.

Range

· Short distance (one inch to 20 feet).

Shielding

· Plastic.

· Glass.

· Safety glasses.

Biological

Hazard

· Internal hazard (this is due to short range).

· Externally, may be hazardous to skin and eyes.

Sources

Insert facility/site-specific information.

3. Gamma rays/X rays

a. Physical characteristics

1) Gamma/X-ray radiation is an electromagnetic wave (electromagnetic radiation) or

photon and has no mass and no electrical charge.

2) Gamma rays are very similar to X rays. The difference between gamma rays and X

rays is that gamma rays originate inside the nucleus and X rays originate in the

electron orbits outside the nucleus.

3) Gamma/X-ray radiation can ionize as a result of direct interactions with orbital

electrons.

b. Range

1) Because gamma/X-ray radiation has no charge and no mass, it has very high

penetrating ability.

2) The range in air is very far. It will easily go several hundred feet.

c. Shielding

Gamma/X-ray radiation is best shielded by very dense materials, such as lead. Water or

concrete, although not as effective as the same thickness as lead, are also commonly

used, especially if the thickness of shielding is not limiting.

d. Biological hazards

Gamma/X-ray radiation can result in radiation exposure to the whole body.

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 1: Radiological Fundamentals

e. Sources

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

Table 1-4

Gamma Rays/X-Rays

Physical

Characteristics

· No mass.

· No charge.

· Electromagnetic wave or photon.

· Similar (difference is the place of origin).

Range

· Range in air is very far.

· It will easily go several hundred feet.

· Very high penetrating power since it has no

mass and no charge.

Shielding

· Concrete.

· Water.

· Lead.

Biological

Hazard

· Whole body exposure.

· The hazard may be external and/or internal.

This depends on whether the source is

inside or outside the body.

Sources

Insert facility/site-specific information.

4. Neutrons

a. Physical characteristics

1) Neutron radiation consists of neutrons that are ejected from the nucleus.

2) A neutron has mass, but no electrical charge.

3) An interaction can occur as the result of a collision between a neutron and a nucleus.

The nucleus recoils due to the energy imparted by the neutron and ionizes other

atoms. This is called “secondary ionization.”

4) Neutrons may also be absorbed by a nucleus. This is called neutron activation. A

charged particle or gamma ray may be emitted as a result of this interaction. The

emitted radiation can cause ionization in other atoms.

b. Range

1) Because of the lack of a charge, neutrons have a relatively high penetrating ability

and are difficult to stop.

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 1: Radiological Fundamentals

2) The range in air is very far. Like gamma rays, they can easily travel several hundred

feet in air.

c. Shielding

Neutron radiation is best shielded by materials with a high hydrogen content such as

water, concrete, or plastic.

d. Biological hazards

Neutrons are a whole body hazard due to their high penetrating ability.

e. Sources

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

Table 1-5

Neutrons

Physical

Characteristics

· No charge.

· Has mass.

Range

· Range in air is very far.

· Easily can go several hundred feet.

· High penetrating power due to lack of charge

(difficult to stop).

Shielding

· Water.

· Concrete.

· Plastic (high hydrogen content).

Biological

Hazard

· Whole body exposure.

· The hazard is generally external.

Sources

Insert facility/site-specific information.

D. Units of Measure for Radiation (EO7 Identify the units used to measure radiation)

1. Roentgen (R)

a. Is a unit for measuring external exposure. (Absorbed dose results from energy being

deposited by the radiation)

b. Defined only for effect on air.

c. Applies only to gamma and X rays.

d. Does not relate biological effects of radiation to the human body.

e. 1 R (Roentgen) = 1000 milliroentgen (mR).

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 1: Radiological Fundamentals

2. Rad (Radiation absorbed dose)

a. A unit for measuring absorbed dose in any material.

b. Is defined for any material.

c. Applies to all types of radiation.

d. Does not take into account the potential effect that different types of radiation have on the

body.

e. 1 rad = 1000 millirad (mrad).

3. Rem (Roentgen equivalent man)

a. A unit for measuring equivalent dose.

b. Is the most commonly used unit.

c. Pertains to the human body.

d. Equivalent dose takes into account the energy absorbed (dose) and the biological effect

on the body due to the different types of radiation.

The Radiation Weighting Factor (RWF) is used as a multiplier to reflect the relative

amount of biological damage caused by the same amount of energy deposited in cells

by the different types of ionizing radiation. Alpha radiation ionizes a lot of atoms in a

very short distance and, for the same amount of energy deposited as beta or gamma

radiation, is more damaging. Rem = rad x RWF.

Note: Prior to 2007, when DOE updated its dosimetric models and terminology, DOE

used a Quality Factor (QF). The quality factor was applied to the absorbed dose at a

point in order to take into account the differences in the effects of different types of

radiation. Now, for radiological protection purposes, the absorbed dose is averaged

over an organ or tissue and this absorbed average dose is weighted for the radiation

quality in terms of the radiation weighting factor.

Radiation Weighting Factors:

alpha = 20

beta = 1

gamma/x-ray = 1

neutron = 5-20(depending on the energy)

e. 1 rem = 1,000 millirem (mrem). (EO8 Convert rem to millirem and millirem to rem)

4. Radiation dose and dose rate

a. Radiation dose rate is the dose per time.

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 1: Radiological Fundamentals

b. Example:

1) Radiation dose rate = dose/time.

2) Radiation equivalent dose rate = mrem/hr.

3) Radiation absorbed dose rate = mrad/hr.

Table 1-6

Radiation Units

Roentgen (R)

Rad

(Radiation Absorbed

Dose)

Rem

(Roentgen Equivalent

Man)

Unit for

measuring

exposure.

Unit for measuring

absorbed dose in any

material.

Unit for measuring dose

equivalence (most

commonly used unit).

Defined only for

effect on air.

Defined for any material.

Pertains to human body.

Applies only to

gamma and X-

ray radiation.

Applies to all types of

radiation.

Applies to all types of

radiation.

Does not relate

biological

effects of

radiation to the

human body.

Does not take into

account the potential

effect that different types

of radiation have on the

body.

Takes into account the

energy absorbed (dose)

and the biological effect

on the body due to the

different types of

radiation.

Equal doses of different

types of radiation (as

measured in rad) can

cause different levels of

damage to the body

(measured in rem).

III. SUMMARY

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

IV. EVALUATION

(Refer to RWT Program Manual Guide for evaluation guidance)

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 2: Biological Effects

Terminal Objective:

Given various radiation doses and sources of radiation, identify natural and manmade sources of

radiation and the biological risks associated with radiation dose in accordance with lesson materials.

Enabling Objectives:

The participant will be able to select the correct response from a group of responses to verify his/her

ability to:

EO1 Identify the major sources of natural background and manmade radiation.

EO2 Identify the average annual dose to the general population from natural background and

manmade sources of radiation.

EO3 State the method by which radiation causes damage to cells.

EO4 Identify the possible effects of radiation on cells.

EO5 Define the terms “acute dose” and “chronic dose.”

EO6 State examples of chronic radiation dose.

EO7 Define the terms “somatic effect” and “heritable effect.”

EO8 State the potential effects associated with prenatal radiation dose.

EO9 Compare the biological risks from chronic radiation doses to health risks workers are

subjected to in industry and daily life.

Instructional Aids:

1. Student Guide

2. Transparencies

3. Activities (as applicable)

4. Self-check quizzes (as applicable)

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 2: Biological Effects

I. MODULE INTRODUCTION

A. Self Introduction

1. Name

2. Phone Number

3. Background

B. Module Overview

The fact that ionizing radiation produces biological damage has been known for many years.

We have gained most of our knowledge of these effects since World War II.

In this module, we will discuss the potential for biological effects and risks due to ionizing

radiation and put these potential risks into perspective when compared to other occupations

and daily activities. With this information, it is hoped that employees will develop a healthy

respect for radiation rather than fear or disregard.

C. Objectives Review

D. Introduction

We know more about the biological effects of ionizing radiation than most other

environmental factors. Rather than just being able to base our information on animal studies,

we have a large body of information available regarding exposures to humans. There are four

major groups of people that have been exposed to significant levels of radiation.

The first group includes early radiation workers, such as radiologists. These workers received

large doses of radiation before the biological effects were recognized. Since that time,

standards have been developed to protect workers.

The second group is the more than 250,000 survivors of the atomic bombs dropped at

Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Some of these survivors received doses estimated to be in excess of

50,000 mrem.

The third group includes individuals who have been involved in radiation accidents.

The fourth and largest group of individuals are patients who have undergone radiation therapy

for cancer and other diseases.

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 2: Biological Effects

II. MODULE OUTLINE

A. Sources of Radiation (EO1 Identify the major sources of natural background and manmade

radiation)

We live in a radioactive world and always have. In fact, the majority of us will be exposed to

more ionizing radiation from natural background radiation than from our jobs.

1. Natural sources

There are several sources of radiation that occur naturally. The radiation emitted from

these sources is identical to the radiation that results from manmade sources.

The four major sources of naturally occurring radiation exposures are:

· Cosmic radiation

· Sources in the earth’s crust, also referred to as terrestrial radiation

· Sources in the human body, also referred to as internal sources

· Radon

a. Cosmic radiation (total average dose ~ 28 mrem/yr)

1) Cosmic radiation comes from the sun and outer space. It consists of positively

charged particles and gamma radiation.

2) At sea level, the average annual cosmic radiation dose is about 26 mrem.

3) At higher elevations, the amount of atmosphere shielding cosmic rays decreases;

therefore, the dose increases.

b. Sources in earth’s crust (terrestrial) (total average dose ~ 28 mrem/yr)

There are natural sources of radiation in the ground (i.e., rocks and soil).

1) Some of the contributors to terrestrial sources are the natural radioactive

elements radium, uranium, and thorium.

2) Many areas have elevated levels of terrestrial radiation due to increased

concentrations of uranium or thorium in the soil.

c. Internal (total average dose ~40 mrem/yr)

1) The food we eat and the water we drink contain trace amounts of natural

radioactive materials.

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 2: Biological Effects

2) These naturally occurring radioactive materials deposit in our bodies and cause

internal exposure to radiation.

3) Some naturally occurring radioactive isotopes include Sodium-24 (Na-24),

Carbon-14 (C-14), Argon-41 (Ar-41), and Potassium-40 (K-40). Most of our

internal exposure comes from K-40.

d. Radon (total average dose ~ 200 mrem/yr)

1) Radon comes from the radioactive decay of uranium, which is naturally present

in the soil.

2) Radon is a gas. It can travel through the soil and enter through building

foundation cracks. The greatest concentrations of indoor radon are found in

basements.

3) Radon emits alpha radiation. It presents a hazard only when taken into the body

(e.g., when inhaled). (Review characteristics of alpha radiation)

2. Manmade sources (EO1 Identify the major sources of natural background and manmade

radiation)

The difference between manmade sources of radiation and naturally occurring sources is

the origin of the source, i.e., where the radiation is either produced or enhanced by human

activities.

The four top sources of manmade radiation exposures are:

· Tobacco products (cigarettes, cigars etc. although the tobacco is not manmade - the

products are)

· Medical radiation

· Building materials

· Domestic water supply (radon)

a. Tobacco products (average dose ~1300 mrem/yr)

b. Medical radiation sources (total average dose ~ 54 mrem/yr)

1) X rays (total average dose ~ 40mrem/yr)

a) X rays are similar to gamma rays; however, they originate outside the

nucleus.

b) A typical radiation dose from a chest X ray is about 10 mrem.

2) Diagnosis and therapy (total average dose ~14 mrem/yr)

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 2: Biological Effects

In addition to X rays, radioactive materials and radioactive sources are used in

medicine for diagnosis and therapy.

c. Building materials (total average dose ~7 mrem/yr)

d. Domestic water supply (radon) (total average dose ~5 mrem/yr)

e. Other minor contributors

Other contributors to dose include consumer products, industrial sources, and

atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons. (Discuss: It has been more than 20 years

since atmospheric testing has been conducted)

3. Average annual dose (EO2 Identify the average annual dose to the general population

from natural background and manmade sources of radiation)

The average annual total effective dose to the general population (non-smokers) from

naturally occurring and manmade sources is about 360 mrem.

B. Effects of Radiation on Cells

The human body is made up of many organ systems. Each system is made up of tissues.

Specialized cells make up tissues. Ionizing radiation can potentially affect the normal

function of cells.

1. Biological effects begin with the ionization of atoms (EO3 State the method by which

radiation causes damage to cells)

a. The method by which radiation causes damage to human cells is by ionization of

atoms in the cells. It may also cause excitation. Excitation is where the radiation

deposits energy into an atom raising its energy level but not enough energy to eject a

bound electron. Atoms make up the cells that make up the tissues of the body. Any

potential radiation damage begins with damage to atoms.

b. A cell is made up of two principal parts, the body of the cell and the nucleus. The

nucleus is like the brain of the cell.

c. When ionizing radiation hits a cell, it may strike a vital part of the cell like the

nucleus or a less vital part of the cell, like the cytoplasm.

2. Cell sensitivity

Some cells are more sensitive than others to environmental factors such as viruses,

toxins, and ionizing radiation.

a. Actively dividing and non-specialized cells

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 2: Biological Effects

1) Cells in our bodies that are actively dividing are more sensitive to ionizing

radiation.

2) Cells that are rapidly dividing include blood-forming cells, the cells that line our

intestinal tract, hair follicles, and cells that form sperm.

b. Less actively dividing and more specialized cells

Cells that divide at a slower rate or are more specialized (such as brain cells or

muscle cells) are not as sensitive to damage by ionizing radiation.

3. Possible effects of radiation on cells (EO4 Identify the possible effects of radiation on

cells)

Several things can happen when a cell is exposed to ionizing radiation. The following are

possible effects of radiation on cells.

a. There is no damage

b. Cells are damaged but are able to repair the damage and operate normally

1) The body of most cells is made up primarily of water. When ionizing radiation

hits a cell, it is most likely to interact with the water in the cell. One of the

byproducts of radiation-induced ionization of water is hydrogen peroxide.

Hydrogen peroxide can damage cell atomic structures.

2) Ionizing radiation can also hit the nucleus of the cell. The nucleus contains the

vital parts of the cell, such as chromosomes. The chromosomes determine cell

function. When chromosomes duplicate themselves, the chromosomes transfer

their information to new cells. Radiation may cause a change in the

chromosome that does not affect the cell.

3) Damage to chromosomes and other cell structures can be repaired. In fact, our

bodies repair a very large number of chromosome breaks every day (References

7 and 10).

3. Average annual dose

The average annual total effective dose to the general population from naturally occurring

and manmade sources is about 360 mrem.

c. Cells are damaged and operate abnormally

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Module 2: Biological Effects

1) Cell damage may not be repaired or may be incompletely repaired. In that case,

the cell may not be able to function properly.

2) It is possible that a chromosome in the cell nucleus could be damaged but not be

repaired correctly. If the cell continues to reproduce, this is called a mutation

and may result in cancer.

d. Cells die as a result of the damage

At any given moment, thousands of our cells die and are replaced by normal

functioning cells. However, the radiation damage to a cell may be so extensive that

the cell dies prematurely.

C. Acute and Chronic Radiation Dose (EO5 Define the terms “acute dose” and “chronic dose”)

Potential biological effects depend on how much and how fast a radiation dose is received.

Radiation doses can be grouped into two categories: acute and chronic dose.

1. Acute radiation doses

a. High doses of radiation received in a short period of time are called acute doses. The

body’s cell repair mechanisms are not as effective for damage caused by an acute

dose.

b. Acute doses to the whole body

After an acute dose, damaged cells may be replaced by new cells and the body may

repair itself, although this may take a number of months. Only in extreme cases,

such as with the Chernobyl firefighters (500 rem), would the dose be so high as to

make recovery unlikely.

c. Acute doses to only part of the body

1) X-ray machines

It is possible that radiation exposure may be limited to a part of the body, such as

the hands.

There have been accidents, particularly with X-ray machines, in which

individuals have exposed their fingers to part of the intense radiation beam. In

some of these cases, individuals have received doses of millions

of mrem to their

fingers, and some individuals have lost their finger or fingers. It is important for

individuals who work with X-ray or similar equipment to be trained in the safe

use of this equipment.

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Module 2: Biological Effects

2) Radiation therapy (Reference 5)

a) Radiation therapy patients receive high doses of radiation in a short period

of time, but generally only to a small portion of the body (not a whole body

dose).

b) The skin and limited tissue of these patients may receive significant doses,

but doses to the region of a tumor are many times higher.

c) Ionizing radiation is used to treat cancer in these patients because cancer

cells are rapidly dividing and therefore sensitive to ionizing radiation. Some

of the side effects of people undergoing radiation therapy are hair loss,

nausea, and tiredness.

d. Probability of a large acute dose

What is important to understand is that it takes a large acute dose of radiation before

any physical effect is seen. These acute doses have occurred in Hiroshima/Nagasaki,

and in a few radiation accidents, including Chernobyl. The possibility of a

radiological worker receiving a large acute dose of ionizing radiation on the job is

extremely low. Typically, radioactive materials are handled in small quantities that

do not produce a large amount of radiation. Where there is a potential for larger

exposures, many safety features are required.

2. Chronic radiation doses (EO5 Define the terms “acute dose” and “chronic dose”)

A chronic radiation dose is typically a small amount of radiation received over a long

period of time. An example of a chronic dose is the dose we receive from natural

background every day of our lives. The body’s cell repair mechanisms are better able to

repair a chronic dose than an acute dose.

a. The body has time to repair damage because a smaller percentage of the cells need

repair at any given time.

b. The body also has time to replace dead or non-functioning cells with new, healthy

cells.

3. Biological effects of radiation exposure

Somatic effects refer to the effects radiation has on the individual receiving the dose.

Genetic effects refer to mutations due to radiation damage to the DNA of a cell. When

this change is in the DNA of parental reproductive cells, it is called a heritable effect.

(EO7Define the terms “somatic effect” and “heritable effect.”)

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 2: Biological Effects

a. Somatic Effects

Somatic effects can best be described in terms of prompt and delayed effects as

discussed below.

1) Prompt Effects:

Although rare in the nuclear industry, large doses are typically acute radiation

doses representing serious overexposures. The biological effects of large acute

doses are as follows:

Table 2-1

Prompt Biological Effects

Dose (rad)

Effect

0-25

None detectable through

symptoms or routine blood tests.

25-100

Changes in blood.

100-300

Nausea, anorexia.

300-600

(450 rem is considered the dose

where 50% fatalities occur within

30 days with no medical help

(lethal dose - LD 50/30)

Diarrhea, hemorrhage, and

possible death

(Effects are dependent on medical intervention and the individual)

2) Delayed Effects

Delayed effects may result from either a single large acute overexposure or

from continuing low-level chronic exposure. Cancer in its various forms is

the most important potential delayed effect of radiation exposure. Other

effects noted include cataracts, life shortening and, for individuals exposed

in the womb, lower IQ test scores.

b. Heritable Effects

A heritable effect is a physical mutation or trait that is passed on to offspring. In

the case of heritable effects, the parental individual has experienced damage to

some genetic material in the reproductive cells and has passed the damaged

genetic material onto offspring.

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Module 2: Biological Effects

1) Heritable effects from radiation have never been observed in humans but are

considered possible. They have been observed in studies of plants and

animals.

2) Heritable effects have not been found in the 77,000 Japanese children born

to the survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (these are children who were

conceived after

the atom bomb -- i.e., heritable effects). Studies have

followed these children, their children, and their grandchildren.

4. Factors affecting biological damage due to exposure to radiation

a. Total dose

In general, the greater the dose, the greater the potential for biological effects.

b. Dose rate (how fast)

The faster the dose is delivered, the less time the body has to repair itself.

c. Type of radiation

For example, internally deposited alpha emitters are more damaging than beta or

gamma emitters for the same energy deposited. Alpha emitters deposit energy in

a very small mass, beta and gamma emitters deposit their energy over a larger

mass.

d. Area of the body that receives a dose

In general, the larger the area of the body that receives a dose, the greater the

biological effect.

Extremities are less sensitive than blood forming and other critical organs. That

is why the annual dose limit for extremities is higher than for a whole body dose

that irradiates internal organs.

e. Cell sensitivity

The most sensitive cells are those that are rapidly dividing. Examples include

blood cells, hair follicles, and the cells lining the gastrointestinal tract.

f. Individual sensitivity

Some individuals are more sensitive to environmental factors such as ionizing

radiation.

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Module 2: Biological Effects

The developing embryo/fetus is the most sensitive, and children are more

sensitive than adults. This is due to their having large number s of rapidly

dividing cells.

In general, the human body becomes relatively less sensitive to ionizing

radiation with increasing age. The exception is that elderly people are more

sensitive than middle-aged adults due to the inability to repair damage as quickly

(less efficient cell repair mechanisms).

D. Prenatal Radiation Exposure

(EO8 State the potential effects associated with prenatal radiation dose)

Although no effects were seen in Japanese children conceived after the atomic bomb, there

were effects seen in some children who were in the womb when exposed to the atomic bomb

radiation at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Some of these children were born with a slightly

smaller head size, lower average birth weight, and increased incidence of mental retardation.

Some later showed lower IQ test scores and slower scholastic development, smaller physical

size, and increased incidence of behavioral problems.

1. Sensitivity of the fetus

Embryo/fetal cells are rapidly dividing, which makes them sensitive to many

environmental factors including ionizing radiation. The embryo/fetus is most susceptible

to developing adverse health effects if exposed during the time period of 8 - 15 weeks

after conception.

2. Factors for potential effects associated with prenatal exposures

Many chemical and physical (environmental) factors are suspected of causing or known

to have caused damage to a fetus, especially early in the pregnancy. Radiation, alcohol

consumption, exposure to lead, and heat, such as from hot tubs, are only a few such

factors.

E. Risks in Perspective

Current radiation protection standards and practices are based on the premise that any

radiation dose, no matter how small, can result in health effects such as cancer. Further, it is

assumed that these effects are produced in direct proportion to the dose received (i.e.,

doubling the radiation dose results in a doubling of the risk of the effect). These two

assumptions lead to a dose-response relationship, often referred to as the linear, no-threshold

model, for limiting health effects at very low radiation dose levels.

However, it should be noted that this is a conservative assumption made in the absence of

more conclusive evidence. Health effects (primarily cancer) have been observed in humans

only at doses in excess of 10 rem delivered at high dose rates. Below this dose, estimation of

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 2: Biological Effects

adverse health effects is speculative. Risk estimates that are used to predict health effects in

exposed individuals or populations are based on epidemiological studies of well-defined

populations (e.g., the Japanese survivors of the atomic bombings in 1945 and medical

patients) exposed to relatively high doses delivered at high dose rates. It is generally accepted

that studies have not demonstrated adverse health effects in individuals exposed to small

doses (less than 10 rem) delivered over a period of many years.

1. Risk from exposures to ionizing radiation

a. No increases in cancer have been observed in individuals who receive a dose of

ionizing radiation at occupational levels. The possibility of cancer induction cannot

be dismissed even though an increase in cancers has not been observed. Risk

estimates have been derived from studies of individuals who have been exposed to

high levels of radiation.

b. The risk of cancer induction from radiation exposure can be put into perspective.

This can be done by comparing it to the normal rate of cancer death in today’s

society. The current rate of cancer death among Americans is about 20 percent.

Taken from a personal perspective, each of us has about 20 chances in 100 of dying

of cancer. A radiological worker who receives 25,000 mrem over a working life

increases his/her risk of cancer by 1 percent, or has about 21 chances in 100 of dying

of cancer. A 25,000 mrem dose is a fairly large dose over the course of a working

lifetime. The average annual dose to DOE workers is less than 100 mrem, which

leads to a working lifetime dose (40 years assumed) of no more than approximately

4,000 mrem. (Review: There are many other causes of cancer, not just radiation)

2. Comparison of risks

(EO9 Compare the biological risks from chronic radiation doses to health risks workers

are subjected to in industry and daily life)

a. Table 2-2 compares the estimated days of life expectancy lost as a result of exposure

to radiation and other health risks.

The following information is intended to put the potential risk of radiation into

perspective when compared to other occupations and daily activities.

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Module 2: Biological Effects

Table 2-2

Estimated Loss of Life Expectancy from Health Risks

Health Risk

Estimated Loss of Life Expectancy

Smoking 20 cigarettes a day 6 years

Overweight (by 15%) 2 years

Alcohol consumption (U.S. average) 1 year

Agricultural accidents 320 days

Construction accidents 227 days

Auto accidents 207 days

Home accidents 74 days

Occupational radiation dose (1 rem/y), from

age 18-65 (47 rem total) 51 days

(Note: the average DOE radiation worker receives less than 0.1

rem/yr)

All natural hazards

(earthquakes, lightning, flood) 7 days

Medical radiation 6 days

(References 1 and 12 of the PMG)

The estimates in Table 2-2 indicate that the health risks from occupational radiation doses are

smaller than the risks associated with normal day-to-day activities that we have grown to

accept.

b. Acceptance of a risk:

1) is a personal matter.

2) requires a good deal of informed judgment.

c. The risks associated with occupational radiation doses are generally considered acceptable as

compared to other occupational risks by most scientific groups who have studied them. There

are some scientific groups who claim that the risk is too high. DOE continues to fund and

review worker health studies to address these concerns.

III. SUMMARY

In summary, the estimated risk associated with occupation radiation dose is similar to other

routine occupational risks and much less than some risks widely accepted in society. The risk of

work in a radiation environment is considered within the normal occupational risk tolerance by

national and international scientific groups. However, acceptance of risk is an individual matter

and is best made with accurate information. A radiological worker should understand the risk of

working in a nuclear environment in relation to the risks of daily life and the risks presented by

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 2: Biological Effects

work in other professions. The intent of this module is to give you the facts about radiation

exposure risks and provide you with an opportunity to ask questions about radiation risk. It is

hoped that understanding radiation risk and risk in general will help you to develop an informed

and healthy respect for radiation, and that your understanding will eliminate excessive fear of or

indifference to radiation.

IV. EVALUATION

(Refer to RWT Program Manual Guide for evaluation guidance)

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 3: Radiation Dose Limits and Administrative Control Levels

MODULE 3: RADIATION DOSE LIMITS AND ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROL LEVELS

Terminal Objective:

Given various time frames and different parts of the body, identify the applicable DOE dose

limits, DOE administrative control levels, and facility/site-specific administrative control levels in

accordance with the lesson material.

Enabling Objectives:

The participant will be able to select the correct response from a group of responses to verify

his/her ability to:

EO1 State the purposes of administrative control levels.

EO2 Identify the DOE radiation dose limits, DOE recommended administrative control level,

and the facility/site administrative control level.

EO3 State the site policy concerning prenatal radiation exposure.

EO4 Identify the employee’s responsibilities concerning radiation dose limits and

administrative control levels.

Instructional Aids:

1. Student Guide

2. Transparencies

3. Activities (as applicable)

4. Self-check quizzes (as applicable)

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 3: Radiation Dose Limits and Administrative Control Levels

I. MODULE INTRODUCTION

A. Self Introduction

1. Name

2. Phone Number

3. Background

B. Module Overview

This module will address DOE dose limits and administrative control levels.

C. Objectives Review

D. Introduction

DOE limits and administrative control levels have been established for the purpose of

restricting occupational radiation exposures to levels of acceptable risk.

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 3: Radiation Dose Limits and Administrative Control Levels

II. MODULE OUTLINE

A. Basis for and Purpose of Radiation Dose Limits and Administrative Control Levels

1. Basis for DOE dose limits

a. DOE has established radiation dose limits for general workers. These limits are

based on guidance from national and international scientific groups and government

agencies, such as:

1) International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP)

2) National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP)

3) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

b. The radiation protection standards for all DOE workers are described in 10 CFR 835,

“Occupational Radiation Protection.” These regulations apply to DOE, its

contractors, and persons conducting DOE activities and include equivalent dose

limits.

2. Facility/site administrative control levels for general employees

(EO1 State the purposes of administrative control levels)

The facility/site administrative control levels for workers are lower than the DOE limits

and are set to:

a. Ensure the DOE limits and control levels are not exceeded.

b. Help reduce individual and total worker population radiation dose (collective dose).

B. Dose Limits and Administrative Control Levels

(EO2 Identify the DOE radiation dose limits, DOE recommended administrative control level,

and the facility/site administrative control level)

In 2007 DOE updated its models for calculating dose to use newer models recommended by

international consensus groups. The impact of these changes is that some neutron exposures

will be assessed differently and intakes of radioactive material will be assessed using the

newer models. These models include revised terminology for some of the dosimetric terms.

The following table highlights the different terms.

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 3: Radiation Dose Limits and Administrative Control Levels

Table 3-1 Updated Dosimetric Terms

Previous Dosimetric Term

DOE 2007 Amended Dosimetric Term

Committed effective dose equivalent

Committed effective dose

Committed dose equivalent

Committed equivalent dose

Cumulative total effective dose

equivalent

Cumulative total effective dose

Deep dose equivalent

Equivalent dose to the whole body

Dose equivalent

Equivalent dose

Effective dose equivalent

Effective dose

Lens of the eye dose equivalent

Equivalent dose to the lens of the eye

Quality factor

Radiation weighting factor

Shallow dose equivalent

Equivalent dose to the skin or

Equivalent dose to any extremity

Weighting factor

Tissue weighting factor

Total effective dose equivalent

Total effective dose

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Module 3: Radiation Dose Limits and Administrative Control Levels

Table 3-2

Dose Limits and Controls

DOE Dose

Limit

rem/year

DOE

Recommendations

rem/year

Facility/site

Administrative

Control Level

rem/year

Whole body

facility/site-

specific

Extremity

N/A

facility/site-

specific

Skin & other

organs

N/A

facility/site-

specific

Lens of the eye

N/A

facility/site-

specific

Members of

the public

0.1

N/A

facility/site-

specific

Occupationally

exposed

minors

0.1 whole

body and 10%

of other above

limits

N/A facility/site-

specific

Declared

pregnant

worker

0.5/gestation

period

N/A

facility/site-

specific

(Optional: leave chart blank and have student complete chart)

NOTE: 1) The chart is based on limits and control levels for routine conditions. The limits and control

levels are also based on the sum of internal and external dose. External dose is from sources outside the

body. Internal dose is from sources inside the body. 2) The internal dose reported in a given calendar

year is actually the projected dose the individual will receive over the next 50 years from intakes in that

calendar year. Radioactive material may be inhaled, ingested, or absorbed through the skin or open

wound.

1. Whole body

a. Definition

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 3: Radiation Dose Limits and Administrative Control Levels

The whole body extends from the top of the head down to just below the elbow and

just below the knee. This is the location of most of the blood-producing and vital

organs.

b. Limit and control levels

The DOE whole body dose limit is based on the sum of internal and external dose.

1) DOE radiation dose limit during routine conditions is 5 rem/year

2) Because DOE’s objective is to maintain personnel radiation dose well below the

regulatory limits, the DOE Radiological Control Technical Standard

recommends a DOE administrative control level during routine conditions of

2 rem/year

3) Facility/site administrative control level.

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

2. Extremities

a. Definition

Extremities include the hands and arms below the elbow, and the feet and legs below

the knees.

b. Limit and control level

Extremities can withstand a much larger dose than the whole body because there are

no major blood-producing organs located here.

1) DOE radiation dose limit for extremities is 50 rem/year

2) Facility/site administrative control levels.

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

3. Skin and other organs

a. DOE radiation dose limit for skin and other organs is 50 rem/year

b. Facility/site administrative control level

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

4. Lens of the eye

a. DOE radiation dose limit for lens of the eye is 15 rem/year

b. Facility/site administrative control level.

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Module 3: Radiation Dose Limits and Administrative Control Levels

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

5. Declared pregnant worker: Embryo/fetus

After a female worker voluntarily notifies her employer in writing that she is pregnant,

she is considered a declared pregnant worker. For the purposes of radiological protection

of the fetus/embryo, DOE requires a special limit for dose to the fetus/embryo. In

addition, the DOE RCS recommends that the employer provide the option of a mutually

agreeable assignment of work tasks, with no loss of pay or promotional opportunity, such

that further occupational radiation exposure is unlikely during the remaining gestation

period.

• This declaration may be revoked, in writing, at anytime by the declared pregnant

worker.

b. DOE limit

For a declared pregnant worker who continues working as a radiological worker, the

following radiation dose limit will apply.

1) The dose limit for the embryo/fetus (during the entire gestation period) is 500

mrem.

a) Measures shall be taken to avoid substantial variation above the uniform

exposure rate necessary to meet the 500 mrem limit for the gestation period.

b) The DOE RCS recommends that efforts be made to avoid exceeding 50

mrem/month to the embryo/fetus of the declared pregnant worker.

2) If the dose to the embryo/fetus is determined to have already exceeded 500

mrem when a worker notifies her employer of her pregnancy, the worker shall

not be assigned to tasks where additional occupational radiation exposure is

likely during the remainder of the pregnancy.

b. Site policy

(EO3 State the site policy concerning prenatal radiation exposure)

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

c. Facility/site administrative control level

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

6. Members of the public and occupationally exposed minors

a. DOE radiation dose limit is 100 mrem/year

. There is an additional limit for

occupationally expose minors of 10% of the other limits.

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Module 3: Radiation Dose Limits and Administrative Control Levels

b. Facility/site administrative control levels

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

C. Worker Responsibilities Regarding Dose Limits

(EO4 Identify the employee’s responsibilities concerning radiation dose limits and

administrative control levels)

1. It is each employee’s responsibility to comply with DOE dose limits and facility/site

administrative control levels.

2. If you suspect that dose limits or administrative control levels are being approached or

exceeded, you should notify your supervisor immediately.

3. (Insert facility/site-specific information.)

III. SUMMARY

(Refer to RWT Program Manual Guide for evaluation guidance)

(Insert Site Summary.)

IV. EVALUATION

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 4: ALARA Program

MODULE 4: ALARA PROGRAM

Terminal Objective:

Given different radiological conditions, identify the techniques for minimizing exposure to

radiation and radioactive material in accordance with lesson materials.

Enabling Objectives:

The participant will be able to select the correct response from a group of responses to verify

his/her ability to:

EO1 State the ALARA concept.

EO2 State the DOE/Site management policy for the ALARA program.

EO3 Identify the responsibilities of management, the Radiological Control Organization, and

the radiological worker in the ALARA Program.

EO4 Identify methods for reducing external and internal radiation dose.

EO5 State the pathways by which radioactive material can enter the body.

EO6 Identify methods a radiological worker can use to minimize radioactive waste.

Instructional Aids:

1. Student Guide

2. Transparencies

3. Activities (as applicable)

4. Self-check quizzes (as applicable)

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 4: ALARA Program

I. MODULE INTRODUCTION

A. Self Introduction

1. Name

2. Phone Number

3. Background

B. Module Overview

This module is designed to inform the student of the concept of ALARA (As Low As

Reasonably Achievable). This module discusses radiation hazards. Methods for reducing

both external and internal doses from radiation and radioactive material are also discussed.

C. Objectives Review

D. Introduction

DOE establishes dose limits and administrative control levels for general employees.

However, radiological workers and their management strive to keep radiation dose well below

these limits. Radiological workers should always try to maintain their radiation dose A

s Low

s Reasonably Achievable (ALARA).

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 4: ALARA Program

II. MODULE OUTLINE

A. ALARA Program

ALARA stands for As Low As Reasonably Achievable. ALARA is an approach to radiation

safety that strives to manage and control doses (both individual and collective) to the work

force and the general public to as low as is reasonable taking into account social, technical,

economic, practical, and public policy considerations.

1. ALARA concept

(EO1 State the ALARA concept)

a. ALARA stands for A

s Low As Reasonably Achievable.

b. Because some risk, however small, exists from any radiation dose, all doses should

be kept ALARA. ALARA includes reducing both internal and external radiation

dose.

c. The ALARA concept is an integral part of all site activities that involve the use of

sources of ionizing radiation.

d. ALARA is the responsibility of all employees.

2. DOE Management Policy for the ALARA program

(EO2 State the DOE/Site management policy for the ALARA program)

Personal radiation exposure shall be maintained As Low As Reasonably Achievable.

Radiation exposure to the work force and public shall be controlled such that:

· Radiation doses are well below regulatory limits.

· There is no radiation exposure without an overall benefit.

3. Site policy

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

B. Responsibilities for the ALARA Program

(EO3 Identify the responsibilities of management, the Radiological Control Organization, and

the radiological worker in the ALARA Program)

The individual radiological worker is ultimately responsible for maintaining his/her radiation

dose ALARA. However, management and Radiological Control personnel also play an

important role in the ALARA program. The following are some of the responsibilities of the

three groups:

1. Management

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

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Module 4: ALARA Program

2. Radiological Control Organization

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

3. Radiological workers

Each radiological worker is expected to demonstrate responsibility and accountability.

This is accomplished through an informed, disciplined, and cautious attitude toward

radiation and radioactivity.

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

C. External and Internal Radiation Dose Reduction

Engineering controls should be the primary method to control exposure (e.g., enclosed

hoods). Administrative controls is the next method to control exposures (e.g., postings).

Personnel protective equipment is the last method (e.g., respirators).

1. Basic protective measures used to minimize external dose include:

· Minimizing time in radiation areas

· Maximizing the distance from a source of radiation

· Using shielding whenever possible

· Reducing the amount of radioactive material (source reduction)

a. Methods for minimizing time

(EO4 Identify methods for reducing external and internal radiation dose)

Reducing the time spent in a field of radiation will lower the dose received by the

workers.

1) Plan and discuss the task thoroughly prior to entering the area. Use only the

number of workers actually required to do the job.

2) Have all necessary tools present before entering the area.

3) Use mock-ups and practice runs that duplicate work conditions.

4) Take the most direct route to the job site if possible and practical.

5) Never loiter in an area controlled for radiological purposes.

6) Work efficiently and swiftly.

7) Do the job right the first time.

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 4: ALARA Program

8) Perform as much work outside the area as possible. When practical, remove

parts or components to areas with lower dose rates to perform work.

9) Do not exceed stay times. In some cases, the Radiological Control Organization

may limit the amount of time a worker may stay in an area due to various

reasons. This is known as “stay time.” If you have been assigned a stay time,

do not exceed this time.

10) (Insert facility/site-specific information.)

b. Methods for maximizing distance from sources of radiation

(EO4 Identify methods for reducing external and internal radiation dose)

The worker should stay as far away as possible from the source of radiation.

1) Stay as far away from radiation sources as practical given the task assignment.

For point sources (such as valves and hot spots), the dose rate follows a principle

called the inverse square law. This law states that if you double the distance, the

dose rate falls to 1/4 of the original dose rate. If you triple the distance, the dose

rate falls to 1/9 of the original dose rate.

(DR: Dose Rate

= DR

x (Distance

/Distance

))

2) Be familiar with radiological conditions in the area.

3) During work delays, move to lower dose rate areas.

4) Use remote handling devices when possible.

5) (Insert facility/site-specific information.)

c. Proper uses of shielding

(EO4 Identify methods for reducing external and internal radiation dose)

Shielding reduces the amount of radiation dose to the worker. Different materials

shield a worker from the different types of radiation.

1) Take advantage of permanent shielding, such as non-radiological

equipment/structures.

2) Use shielded containments when available.

3) Wear safety glasses/goggles to protect your eyes from beta radiation, when

applicable.

4) Temporary shielding (e.g., lead or concrete blocks) can only be installed when

proper procedures are used.

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 4: ALARA Program

5) Temporary shielding will be marked or labeled with wording such as

“Temporary Shielding - Do Not Remove Without Permission from Radiological

Control.”

6) Once temporary shielding is installed, it cannot be removed without proper

authorization.

· When evaluating the use of shielding, the estimated dose saved is compared

to the estimated dose incurred during shield installation and removal.

7) (Insert facility/site-specific information.)

d. Source Reduction

Source reduction is another method of reducing radiation doses. Source reduction

often involves procedures such as flushing radioactive systems, decontamination, and

removal of contaminated items. This is done to reduce the amount of radioactive

materials present in/on a system because these materials can add to radiation levels in

an area.

2. Internal radiation dose reduction

a. Pathways

(EO5 State the pathways by which radioactive material can enter the body)

Internal dose is a result of radioactive materials being taken into the body.

Radioactive material can enter the body through one or more of the following

pathways:

1) Inhalation

2) Ingestion

3) Absorption through the skin

4) Absorption through wounds

b. Methods to reduce internal radiation dose

(EO4 Identify methods for reducing external and internal radiation dose)

Reducing the potential for radioactive materials to enter the body is important. As

previously stated, install or use engineering controls followed by administrative

controls as the primary methods to control internal exposure. PPE is the last choice

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 4: ALARA Program

for controlling internal exposure. In addition, the following are methods the worker

can use.

1) Wear respirators properly when required. Respirators should only be used

by personnel qualified to wear them.

2) Report all wounds or cuts (including scratches and scabs) to the appropriate

facility/site-specific organization before entering any area controlled for

radiological purposes.

(Discuss reporting wounds or cuts with facility/site-specific-information)

3) Comply with the requirements of the controlling work documents.

4) Do not eat, drink, smoke, or chew in Radioactive Materials Areas,

Contamination Areas, High Contamination Areas, or Airborne Radioactivity

Areas, as dispersible radioactive materials may be present.

5) (Insert facility/site-specific information.)

3. Lessons Learned

Review lessons learned from your site or other sites to demonstrate what may be learned

from mistakes leading to excessive personnel exposures.

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

D. Radioactive Waste Minimization

One of the potential consequences of working with radioactive materials is the generation of

radioactive waste. This radioactive waste must be properly disposed. Examples of

radioactive waste include:

· Paper

· Gloves

· Glassware

· Rags

· Brooms, mops

The ALARA concept also applies to minimizing radioactive waste. This will reduce

personnel exposure associated with the handling, packaging, storing, and disposing of

radioactive waste. This will also reduce the resultant costs. It is very important for each

radiological worker to minimize the amount of radioactive waste generated.

1. Methods to minimize radioactive waste

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 4: ALARA Program

The following information identifies methods to minimize radioactive waste.

(EO6 Identify methods a radiological worker can use to minimize radioactive waste)

a. Minimize the materials used for radiological work.

1) Take only the tools and materials you need for the job into areas controlled for

radiological purposes. This is especially important for contamination areas.

2) Unpack equipment and tools in a clean area. This will help to avoid bringing

unnecessary material to the job site. This material can become radioactive waste

if it is contaminated.

3) Use tools and equipment that are identified for radiological work when possible.

(Add facility/site-specific information about where such tools are stored.)

4) Use only the materials required to clean the area. An excessive amount of bags,

rags, and solvent adds to radioactive waste.

5) Sleeve, or otherwise protect with a covering such as plastic, clean materials

brought into contaminated areas.

6) (Insert facility/site-specific information.)

b. Separate radioactive waste from nonradioactive waste.

1) Place radioactive waste in the containers identified for radioactive waste. Do not

place radioactive waste in nonradioactive waste containers.

2) Do not throw nonradioactive waste, or radioactive material that may be reused,

into radioactive waste containers.

3) (Insert facility/site-specific information.)

c. Separate compactable material from noncompactable material.

d. Minimize the amount of mixed waste generated. Mixed waste is waste that contains

both radioactive and hazardous materials.

e. Use good housekeeping techniques.

f. (Insert facility/site-specific information.)

III. SUMMARY

This module addressed key points for the implementation and success of the Site’s ALARA

Program. Responsibilities for all employees and methods to achieve the ALARA concepts were

also discussed.

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 4: ALARA Program

IV. EVALUATION

(Refer to RWT Program Manual Guide for evaluation guidance)

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 5: Personnel Monitoring Programs

MODULE 5: PERSONNEL MONITORING PROGRAMS

Terminal Objective:

Given different personnel monitoring programs, identify the purpose, types, and worker

responsibilities for each in accordance with lesson material.

Enabling Objectives:

The participant will be able to select the correct response from a group of responses to verify

his/her ability to:

EO1 State the purpose and worker responsibilities for each of the external dosimeter devices

used at the site.

EO2 State the purpose and worker responsibilities for each type of internal monitoring method

used at the site.

EO3 State the methods for obtaining radiation dose records.

EO4 Identify worker responsibilities for reporting radiation dose received from other sites and

from medical applications.

Instructional Aids:

1. Student Guide

2. Transparencies

3. Activities (as applicable)

4. Self-check quizzes (as applicable)

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 5: Personnel Monitoring Programs

I. MODULE INTRODUCTION

A. Self Introduction

1. Name

2. Phone Number

3. Background

B. Module Overview

The various types of personnel monitoring devices and the employee’s responsibilities

concerning each will be discussed.

C. Objectives Review

D. Introduction

External exposure results from radiation that comes from radioactive material outside of the

body. A “personnel dosimeter” is a device used to measure external dose. Internal dose is

radiation that comes from radioactive material within the body. The whole body counter,

chest counter, and bioassay sampling are methods for measuring internal dose.

Personnel monitoring for radiation dose involves assessing exposure due to external sources

and internal sources.

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 5: Personnel Monitoring Programs

II. MODULE OUTLINE

A. External Dosimetry

A personnel dosimeter is a device used to measure radiation dose. Different types of external

dosimeters may be used. Radiological Control personnel determine which type(s) are needed.

The following information identifies the different types used at this facility/site.

1. Purpose

(EO1 State the purpose and worker responsibilities for each of the external dosimeter devices

used at the site)

(Insert facility/site-specific information to describe purpose, and basic operation of each

type.)

2. Worker responsibilities for external dosimetry include the following:

a. Wear dosimeters when required.

Radiological Control personnel identify the requirements. Check signs and

radiological work permits (RWPs) for the requirements.

b. Wear dosimeters properly.

1) Primary dosimeters should be worn on the chest area. This area is on or between

the neck and the waist. Radiological control procedures or work authorizations

may also identify proper placement.

2) Supplement dosimeters are worn in accordance with site policy. This includes

pocket, electronic dosimeters, extremity dosimetry, or multiple dosimeter sets.

c. Take proper actions if dosimeter is lost, damaged, contaminated, or off-scale. If in

an area controlled for radiological purposes, take the following actions:

1) Place work activities in a safe condition.

2) Alert others.

3) Immediately exit the area.

4) Notify radiological control personnel.

d. Store the dosimeter in the proper storage location.

(Discuss facility/site-specific policy for storage of dosimeters)

e. Return dosimeters for processing as directed. Personnel that fail to return dosimeters

may be restricted from continued radiological work.

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Module 5: Personnel Monitoring Programs

f. Dosimeters issued from the permanent work site cannot be worn at another site.

g. (Insert facility/site-specific information)

B. Internal Monitoring

Whole body counters, chest counters, and/or bioassay samples may be used to monitor

radioactive material in the human body. In some cases, the locations of radioactive material

may be determined. An internal dose estimate may be performed based on these

measurements.

1. Purpose of each type of internal monitoring.

(EO2 State the purpose and worker responsibilities for each type of internal monitoring

method used at the site)

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

2. Worker responsibilities

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

C. Methods for Obtaining Radiation Dose Records

(EO3 State the methods for obtaining radiation dose records)

1. Individuals who are monitored for exposure at DOE facilities have the right to request

reports of that exposure as follows:

a. Upon the request from an individual terminating employment, records of radiation

dose shall be provided by the DOE facility/site within 90 days. If requested, a

written estimate of radiation exposure received by the terminating employee shall be

provided at the time of termination.

b. Each individual required to be monitored for radiation exposure at a DOE

facility/site shall receive a report of that exposure on an annual basis.

c. Detailed information concerning any individual’s dose shall be made available to the

individual upon request of that individual.

d. When a DOE contractor is required to report to the Department, pursuant to

Departmental requirements for occurrence reporting and processing, any exposure of

an individual to radiation and/or radioactive material, or planned special exposure,

the contractor shall also provide that individual with a report on his/her exposure data

included therein. Such a report shall be transmitted at a time not later than the

transmittal to the Department.

2. Reporting radiation dose received from other facilities and medical applications

(EO4 Identify worker responsibilities for reporting radiation dose received from other

sites and from medical applications)

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 5: Personnel Monitoring Programs

a. Notify Radiological Control personnel prior to and following any radiation dose

received at another facility/site so that dose records can be updated.

b. Notify Radiological Control of medical radioactive applications. This does not

include routine medical and dental X rays. This does include therapeutic and

diagnostic radio- pharmaceuticals.

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

III. SUMMARY

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

IV. EVALUATION

(Refer to RWT Program Manual Guide for evaluation guidance)

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 6: Radiological Access Controls and Postings

Terminal Objective:

Given an area controlled for radiological purposes, the participant will be able to enter and exit the

area in accordance with radiological access controls and postings.

Enabling Objectives:

The participant will be able to select the correct response from a group of responses to verify

his/her ability to:

EO1 State the purpose of and information found on Radiological Work Permits (RWPs).

EO2 Identify the worker’s responsibilities in using Radiological Work Permits.

EO3 Identify the colors and symbol used on radiological postings.

EO4 State the radiological and disciplinary consequences of disregarding radiological

postings, signs, and labels.

EO5 Define the areas controlled for radiological purposes.

EO6 Identify the minimum or recommended requirements for entering, working in, and

exiting:

a. Radiological Buffer Areas

b. Radiation Areas

c. Radioactive Material Areas

d. Underground Radioactive Material Areas

e. Soil Contamination Areas

f. Fixed Contamination Areas

EO7 Identify the areas a Radiological Worker I trained person may enter.

EO8 Identify the purpose and use of personnel contamination monitors.

Instructional Aids:

1. Student Guide

2. Transparencies

3. Activities (as applicable)

4. Self-check quizzes (as applicable)

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 6: Radiological Access Controls and Postings

I. MODULE INTRODUCTION

A. Self Introduction

1. Name

2. Phone Number

3. Background

B. Module Overview

Radiological Work Permits (RWP) used to control access into areas controlled for

radiological purposes will be addressed. In addition, radiological requirements for working in

these areas will be presented.

C. Objectives Review

D. Introduction

The previous modules discussed some important radiological topics from a theoretical

perspective. The current module will discuss the application of this theory to control

radiological work in a safe but efficient manner.

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 6: Radiological Access Controls and Postings

II. MODULE OUTLINE

A. Radiological Work Permits (RWPs)

1. Purpose of RWPs

(EO1 State the purpose of and information found on Radiological Work Permits (RWPs))

RWPs may be used to establish radiological controls for entry into areas controlled for

radiological purposes. They serve to:

a. Inform workers of area radiological conditions.

b. Inform workers of entry requirements.

c. Provide a record relating radiation doses to specific work activities.

2. Types of RWPs

The type of RWP used will depend on the radiological conditions in the area.

a. General Radiological Work Permit

1) This should be used to control routine or repetitive activities such as tours and

inspections or minor work activities in areas with well characterized, stable

radiological conditions.

2) General RWPs should not be approved for periods longer than 1 year.

3) Examples of use

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

b. Job-specific radiological work permit

1) This should be used to control nonroutine operations or work in areas with

changing radiological conditions.

2) It should only remain in effect for the duration of a particular job.

3) Examples of use

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

c. An alternate formal mechanism, such as written procedures, experiment

authorizations, or other written authorization, may be used in lieu of an RWP. The

alternate method should include the elements of an RWP.

3. Information found on the RWP

The RWP should include the following information:

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 6: Radiological Access Controls and Postings

a. Description of work.

b. Work area radiological conditions

This information may also be determined from area radiological survey

maps/diagrams or the radiological posting for that area.

c. Dosimetry requirements.

d. Pre-job briefing requirements.

Pre-job briefings generally consist of discussions among workers and supervisor(s)

concerning various radiological aspects of the job. The purpose of the briefings

should be to discuss radiological exposure and appropriate actions for unplanned

situations.

e. Required level of training for entry.

f. Protective clothing/equipment requirements.

g. Radiological Control coverage requirements and stay time controls, as applicable.

h. Limiting radiological condition that may void the permit.

i. Special dose or contamination reduction requirements.

j. Special personnel frisking requirements.

k. Technical work document to be used, as applicable.

l. Date of issue and expiration.

m. Authorizing signatures and unique identifying designation or number.

4. Responsibilities of the worker when using an RWP

(EO2 Identify the worker’s responsibilities in using Radiological Work Permits)

a. Workers must read and comply with the RWP requirements.

b. Workers must acknowledge they have read, understood, and agreed to comply with

the RWP prior to entering the area and after any revision to the RWP. This is done

by signature or through electronic means.

c. Radiological Control or a supervisor should be contacted prior to work if the RWP

appears to be incorrect or is difficult to understand.

d. Do not make substitutions for specified requirements.

e. Report to Radiological Control personnel if radiological controls are not adequate or

are not being followed.

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 6: Radiological Access Controls and Postings

B. Radiological Postings

1. Radiological postings are used to:

a. Alert personnel to the presence of radiation and radioactive materials.

b. Aid in minimizing personnel dose.

c. Prevent the spread of contamination.

In addition, 10 CFR 835, Subpart F, specifies requirements for personnel entry controls

for HR and VHR Areas.

2. Posting requirements

a. Areas and materials controlled for radiological purposes will be designated with a

magenta or black standard three-bladed radiological warning symbol (trefoil) on a

yellow background.

(EO3 Identify the colors and symbol used on radiological postings)

b. Fixed barriers such as walls, rope, tape, or chain will designate the boundaries of

posted areas. Where possible, the barriers will be yellow and magenta in color.

c. The barriers should be placed to clearly mark the boundary of the areas.

d. Entrance points to radiologically controlled areas should have signs or postings

stating the entry requirements, such as “Personnel Dosimeters, RWP and Respirator

Required.”

e. In some cases, more than one radiological condition may be present. The area shall

be posted to include all of the radiological conditions that are present. (See 10 CFR

835.603. It is a common practice to list the most significant hazard first)

f. In areas of ongoing work activities, the dose rate and contamination levels (or ranges

of each) may be included in postings.

g. The posting will be placed where it is clearly visible to personnel.

3. Responsibilities of the worker

(EO2 Identify the worker’s responsibilities in using Radiological Work Permits)

a. Before entering an area controlled for radiological purposes, read all of the signs.

Since radiological conditions can change, the signs will also be changed to reflect the

new conditions. A sign or posting that you saw one day may be replaced with a new

one the next day.

b. Obey any posted, written or oral requirements including “Exit,” “Evacuate,” “Hold

Point,” or “Stop Work Orders.” These requirements may be included in RWPs and

work procedures, and may come from Radiological Control personnel at the job site.

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 6: Radiological Access Controls and Postings

1) Hold points are specific times noted in a procedure, work permit, etc., where

work must stop for Radiological Control or other evaluations.

2) Stop Work Orders are usually a result of:

a) Inadequate radiological controls

b) Failure to implement radiological controls

c) Radiological hold point not being observed

d) Changing or unexpected conditions.

c. Report unusual conditions such as leaks, spills, or alarming area monitors to the

Radiological Control personnel.

d. Be aware of changing radiological conditions. Be aware that others’ activities may

change the radiological conditions in your area.

e. If any type of material used to identify a radiological hazard is found outside an area

controlled for radiological purposes, it should be reported to Radiological Control

personnel immediately.

4. Consequences of disregarding radiological postings, signs, and labels

(EO4 State the radiological and disciplinary consequences of disregarding radiological

postings, signs, and labels)

a. It is each worker’s responsibility to read and comply with all the information

identified on radiological postings, signs, and labels.

b. Disregarding any of these or removing/relocating them without permission can lead

to:

1) Unnecessary or excessive radiation dose.

2) Personnel contamination.

3) Disciplinary actions such as formal reprimand, suspension, or even termination.

C. Areas a RW I Trained Person Can Enter

(EO7 Identify the areas a Radiological Worker I trained person may enter)

The level of training a radiological worker has successfully completed determines the types of

areas he/she can enter.

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 6: Radiological Access Controls and Postings

1. Radiological Buffer Areas (RBAs)

(EO5 Define the areas controlled for radiological purposes)

RBAs are intermediate areas which DOE RCS recommends be established to prevent the

spread of radioactive contamination and to protect personnel from radiation exposure.

This area designation is not required by 10 CFR 835 and its use may vary from site to

site.

a. Posting Recommendations:

“CAUTION, RADIOLOGICAL BUFFER AREA”

b. Recommended requirements for unescorted entry should include:

(EO6 Identify the minimum or recommended requirements for entering, working in, and

exiting: Radiological Buffer Areas)

1) Appropriate training, such as Radiological Worker I Training.

2) Personnel dosimetry, as appropriate.

3) (Insert facility/site-specific information.)

c. Recommended requirements for working in RBA

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

d. Recommended requirements for exiting an RBA:

Personnel exiting a RBA containing a Contamination Area, High Contamination

Area, or Airborne Radioactivity Area should, at a minimum, perform a hand and foot

frisk.

1) General guidelines for handheld monitoring using a hand-held radioactive

contamination survey instrument include the following:

(EO8 Identify the purpose and use of personnel contamination monitors)

a) Verify the instrument is on, set to the proper scale, and within the

calibration date.

b) Verify instrument response and source check.

c) Ensure the audible function of the instrument is on and can be heard.

d) Determine the instrument background.

(Insert facility/site-specific information concerning acceptable background rates).

e) Survey hands before picking up the probe.

f) Hold the probe approximately ½" from the surface being surveyed for

beta/gamma and ¼" for alpha radiation.

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 6: Radiological Access Controls and Postings

g) Move probe slowly over the surface, approximately 2" per second.

h) If the count rate increases during frisking, pause for 5 to 10 seconds over the

area to provide adequate time for instrument response. When scanning for

contamination there is a delay in instrument response and the cause of the

increased count rate might be back a short distance from where the

increased count rate was observed.

2) Alarm response for hand-held survey instrument

a) If contamination is indicated, remain in the area and notify the Radiological

Control personnel.

b) Minimize cross contamination. For example, put a glove on a contaminated

hand while waiting for the Radiological Control personnel to arrive.

3) Portal monitors

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

2. Radiation Areas (RAs)

(EO5 Define the areas controlled for radiological purposes)

RAs are any areas accessible to individuals in which radiation levels could result in an

individual’s receiving an equivalent dose to the whole body in excess of 5 mrem in one

hour. This is established based on dose rates at 30 cm from the source of radiation or any

surface that the radiation penetrates.

a. Posting Requirements:

“CAUTION, RADIATION AREA”

Additionally, the posting may state:

“Personnel Dosimetry Required for Entry”

b. Minimum requirements for unescorted entry should be:

(EO6 Identify the minimum or recommended requirements for entering, working in, and

exiting: Radiation Areas)

1) Appropriate training, such as Radiological Worker I Training.

2) Personnel dosimeter.

3) Worker’s signature on the RWP, as applicable.

4) (Insert facility/site-specific information.)

c. Minimum requirements for working in an RA

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 6: Radiological Access Controls and Postings

1) Don’t loiter in the area.

2) Follow proper emergency response to abnormal situations.

3) Avoid hot spots.

Hot spots are localized sources of radiation or radioactive material normally

within facility/site piping or equipment. The radiation levels of hot spots exceed

the general area radiation level by more than a factor of 5 and are greater than

100 mrem per hour on contact.

Posting:

“Caution, Hot Spot”

4) (Insert facility/site-specific information.)

d. Minimum requirements for exiting a RA:

1) Observe posted exit requirements

2) Sign-out on RWP or equivalent, as applicable

3) Insert facility/site-specific information

3. Radioactive Materials Area (RMA)

(EO5 Define the areas controlled for radiological purposes)

RMA means an area, accessible to individuals, in which items or containers of

radioactive material exist and the total activity of rad-material exceeds ten times the

applicable value provided in 10 CFR 835 Appendix E.

a. Radioactive material may consist of equipment, components, or materials that have

been exposed to contamination or have been activated. Sealed or unsealed

radioactive sources are also included.

b. Radioactive material may be stored in drums, boxes, etc., and will be marked

appropriately.

c. Posting Requirements:

“CAUTION, RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL(S)”

d. Exceptions to posting requirements.

(See 10 CFR 835.604)

1) Areas may be excepted from the posting requirements for periods of less than 8

continuous hours when placed under continuous observation and control of an

individual knowledgeable of, and empowered to implement, required access and

exposure control measures.

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 6: Radiological Access Controls and Postings

2) The following areas may be excepted from the radioactive material area posting

requirements:

a) Areas posted Radiation Area, High Radiation Area, Very High Radiation

Area, Airborne Radioactivity Area, Contamination Area, or High

Contamination Area

b) Areas in which each item or container of radioactive material is clearly and

adequately labeled in accordance with 10 CFR 835 such that individuals

entering the area are made aware of the hazard.

The radioactive material consists solely of structures or installed components

which have been activated.

d) Areas containing only packages received from radioactive material

transportation labeled and in a non-degraded condition need not be posted in

accordance with 10 CFR 835 until the packages are surveyed.

e. Minimum requirements for unescorted entry should include:

(EO6 Identify the minimum or recommended requirements for entering, working in, and

exiting: Radioactive Material Areas)

1) Appropriate training, such as Radiological Worker I Training.

2) For entry into Radioactive Material Areas where whole body dose rates exceed 5

mrem in one hour, the Radiation Area entry requirements will apply.

3) For entry into Radioactive Material Areas where removable contamination levels

exceed the specified DOE limits, the Contamination Area entry requirements

will apply. (Show sign)

4) (Insert facility/site-specific information.)

f. Minimum requirements for working in an RMA

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

g. Minimum requirements for exiting an RMA

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

4. Fixed Contamination Area (Recommended)

(EO5 Define the areas controlled for radiological purposes)

(EO6 Identify the minimum or recommended requirements for entering, working in, and

exiting: Fixed Contamination Areas)

This area designation is recommended by the DOE RCS. It may be an area or equipment

that contains radioactive material that cannot be easily removed from surfaces by

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 6: Radiological Access Controls and Postings

nondestructive means, such as wiping, brushing, or laundering. This type of area

designation is not required by 10 CFR 835 and its use may vary from site to site.

a. Recommended Posting:

“CAUTION, FIXED CONTAMINATION”

(Show sign)

b. Contact the Radiological Control Organization for entry and exit requirements.

c. (Insert facility/site-specific information.)

5. Soil Contamination Areas for Work that Doesn’t Disturb the Soil (Recommended)

(EO5 Define the areas controlled for radiological purposes)

(EO6 Identify the minimum or recommended requirements for entering, working in, and

exiting: Soil Contamination Areas)

This area designation is recommended by the DOE RCS. It contains surface soil or

subsurface contamination levels that exceed the recommended DOE limits. This type of

area designation is not required by 10 CFR 835 and its use may vary from site to site.

a. Posting:

“CAUTION, SOIL CONTAMINATION AREA”

(Show sign)

b. Contact the Radiological Control Organization for entry and exit requirements.

c. (Insert facility/site-specific information.)

6. Underground Radioactive Materials Areas (URMAS) Where an Individual is not Likely

to Receive a Dose > 0.1 rem in a Year (Recommended)

(EO5 Define the areas controlled for radiological purposes)

URMAS are area designations recommended by the DOE RCS. They are established to

indicate the presence of underground items that contain radioactive materials such as

pipelines, radioactive cribs, covered ponds, inactive burial grounds, and covered spills.

This type of area designation is not required by 10 CFR 835, and its use may vary from

site to site.

a. Posting:

“UNDERGROUND RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS”

Special instructions such as, "Consult with Radiological Control Organization before

Digging" or "Subsurface Contamination Exists" may be included.

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 6: Radiological Access Controls and Postings

b. General requirements:

(EO6 Identify the minimum or recommended requirements for entering, working in, and

exiting: Underground Radioactive Material Areas)

1) An Underground Radioactive Materials Area may be exempt from the general

entry and exit requirements if individual doses do not exceed 100 mrem in a

year.

2) Contact the Radiological Control Organization prior to entry.

c. (Insert facility/site-specific information.)

D. Areas a RW I Trained Person May Not Enter (without additional training)

1. High Radiation Areas (HRAs)

High radiation area means any area, accessible to individuals, in which radiation levels

could result in an individual receiving an equivalent dose to the whole body in excess of

0.1 rems (0.001 Sv) in 1 hour at 30 centimeters from the radiation source or from any

surface that the radiation penetrates.

a. Posting Requirements:

“CAUTION or DANGER, HIGH RADIATION AREA”

(Show sign)

Additionally, the posting may state:

“Personnel Dosimetry Required for Entry”

b. Unescorted entry into this area requires appropriate training, such as RW II or RW I

with the High Radiation Area training module.

2. Very High Radiation Areas (VHRs)

A VHR is any area accessible to individuals in which radiation levels could result in an

individual receiving an absorbed dose in excess of 500 rad in one hour (rad is used

instead of rem for limits associated with very high doses and dose rates) at 1 meter from

the source or from any surface the radiation penetrates.

a. Posting Requirements:

“GRAVE DANGER, VERY HIGH RADIATION AREA”

(Show sign)

3. Contamination Areas (CAs)

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Module 6: Radiological Access Controls and Postings

CAs are

any area, accessible to individuals, where removable surface contamination levels

exceed or are likely to exceed the removable surface contamination values specified in appendix D

of 10 CFR 835, but do not exceed 100 times those values.

a. Posting Requirements:

“CAUTION, CONTAMINATION AREA”

b. Unescorted entry into this area requires appropriate training, such as RW II training.

4. High Contamination Areas (HCAs)

An HCA is an

area, accessible to individuals, where removable surface contamination levels

exceed or are likely to exceed 100 times the removable surface contamination values specified in

appendix D of 10 CFR 835.

a. Posting Requirements:

“CAUTION or DANGER, HIGH CONTAMINATION AREA”

(Show sign)

Additionally, the posting may state:

“RWP REQUIRED FOR ENTRY”

b. Unescorted entry into this area requires appropriate training, such as RW II training.

5. Airborne Radioactivity Areas (ARAs)

ARAs are those areas, accessible to individuals, where the concentration of airborne

radioactivity, above natural background, exceeds or is likely to exceed the specified

limits in 10 CFR 835.

a. Posting Requirements:

“CAUTION or DANGER AIRBORNE RADIOACTIVITY AREA”

(Show sign)

Additionally, the posting may state:

“RWP REQUIRED FOR ENTRY”

b. Unescorted entry into this area requires appropriate training, such as RW II training.

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Module 6: Radiological Access Controls and Postings

III. SUMMARY

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

IV. EVALUATION

(Refer to RWT Program Manual Guide for evaluation guidance)

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 7: Radiological Emergencies

Terminal Objective:

Given a radiological emergency or alarm, identify the appropriate responses in accordance with

approved lesson materials.

Enabling Objectives:

The participant will be able to SELECT the correct response from a group of responses to verify

his/her ability to:

EO1 State the purpose and types of emergency alarms.

EO2 Identify the correct responses to emergencies and alarms.

EO3 State the possible consequences of disregarding radiological alarms.

EO4 State the site administrative emergency radiation dose guidelines.

Instructional Aids:

1. Student Guide

2. Transparencies

3. Activities (as applicable)

4. Self-check quizzes (as applicable)

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 7: Radiological Emergencies

I. MODULE INTRODUCTION

A. Self Introduction

1. Name

2. Phone Number

3. Background

B. Module Overview

This module discusses off-normal and emergency situations and the appropriate response to

each. Radiological alarms associated with monitoring equipment will also be discussed.

C. Objectives Review

D. Introduction

Monitoring systems are used to warn personnel when off-normal radiological conditions exist.

Radiological workers must become familiar with these alarms and know the response to each.

These responses will help to minimize exposure and personal contamination during off-

normal conditions.

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 7: Radiological Emergencies

II. MODULE OUTLINE

A. Emergency Alarms and Responses

Equipment that monitors radiation dose rates and airborne radioactivity levels is placed

throughout DOE radiological facilities. It is essential for radiological workers to recognize

the equipment and the associated alarms and know the appropriate response.

1. Area Radiation Monitors

(EO1 State the purpose and types of emergency alarms)

• Types and purpose

• Operational check (if appropriate)

• Alarms

• Appropriate response

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

2. Continuous Air Monitors

(EO1 State the purpose and types of emergency alarms)

• Types and purpose

• Operational check (if appropriate)

• Alarms

• Appropriate response

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

3. Disregard for Radiological Alarms

(EO3 State the possible consequences of disregarding radiological alarms)

Disregarding any of these radiological alarms may lead to:

• Possible excessive radiation dose

• Unnecessary spread of contamination

• Unnecessary personal contamination

• Disciplinary action

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 7: Radiological Emergencies

B. Radiological Emergency Situations

Working in a radiological environment requires more precautionary measures than

performing the same job in a nonradiological setting. If an emergency arises during

radiological work, response actions may be necessary to ensure personnel safety.

1. Personnel injuries in areas controlled for radiological purposes.

(EO2 Identify the correct responses to emergencies and alarms)

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

2. Situations that require immediate exit from an area controlled for radiological purpose.

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

3. An accidental breach of a radioactive system or spill of radioactive material

a. For radioactive spills involving highly toxic chemicals, workers should immediately

exit the area without attempting to stop or secure the spill. They should then

promptly notify Industrial Hygiene or the Hazardous Material team and Radiological

Control personnel.

For other spills:

• Stop or secure the operation causing the spill, if it can be done safely

• Warn others in the area and notify Radiological Control personnel

• Isolate the spill area, if possible

• Minimize individual exposure and contamination

• Secure unfiltered ventilation (fan, open windows, etc.) if you are qualified to do so

C. Considerations in Rescue and Recovery Operations

1. In extremely rare cases, emergency exposure to high levels of radiation may be

necessary. This is done to rescue personnel or protect major property.

2. Rescue and recovery operations that involve radiological hazards can be very complex.

3. The type of response to these operations is generally left up to the official in charge of the

emergency situation. The official’s judgment is guided by many variables that include

determining the risk versus the benefit of an action and deciding how best to implement

the action.

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 7: Radiological Emergencies

4. No individual shall be required to perform a rescue action that might involve substantial

personal risk. All personnel selected to provide emergency response shall be trained

commensurate with the hazards in the area and required controls. They shall be briefed

beforehand on the known or anticipated hazards to which they shall be subjected.

5. The DOE guidelines for control of Emergency Exposure are as follows:

Table 7-1

Guidelines for Control of Emergency Exposures

Dose limit

(whole

body)

Activity performed

Conditions

5 rem

10 rem

25 rem

All activities

Protecting major property.

Lifesaving or protection of

large

populations.

Where lower dose

limit is not

practicable.

>25 rem

Lifesaving or protection of

large

populations.

Only on a voluntary

basis to personnel

fully aware of the

risks involved.

The lens of the eye dose guideline is three times the listed values.

The shallow dose guideline to the skin of the whole body and the

extremities is 10 times the listed values. These doses are in addition

to and accounted for separately from the doses received under the

limits in §§835.202 and 835.205.

6. Site administrative emergency dose guidelines for rescue and recovery operations.

(EO4 State the site administrative emergency radiation dose guidelines)

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

III. SUMMARY

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

IV. EVALUATION

(Refer to RWT Program Manual Guide for evaluation guidance)

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 8: High/Very High Radiation Area Training

Prerequisite: Core Academics (Modules 1-7)

Terminal Objective:

Given a High or Very High Radiation area sign, define the area and identify the requirements for entry

to High Radiation Areas in accordance with the lesson material.

Enabling Objectives:

The participant will be able to select the correct response from a group of responses to verify his/her

ability to:

EO1 Define “High Radiation Area” and “Very High Radiation Area.”

EO2 Identify sources and locations that may produce High Radiation Areas and Very High

Radiation Areas at the site.

EO3 State the minimum requirements for entering, working in, and exiting High Radiation Areas.

EO4 State the administrative and physical controls for access to High Radiation Areas.

Instructional Aids:

1. Student Guide

2. Transparencies

3. Activities (as applicable)

4. Self-check quizzes (as applicable)

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 8: High/Very High Radiation Area Training

I. MODULE INTRODUCTION

A. Self Introduction

1. Name

2. Phone Number

3. Background

B. Module Overview

This module discusses information regarding entry, work in, and control of High Radiation

Areas and the materials and systems that can emit high radiation levels.

C. Objectives Review

D. Introduction

1. The High Radiation Area lesson plan familiarizes the participant with requirements for

entry, work in, and exit from High Radiation Areas.

2. Radiological Worker Modules 1-7 (core academic material) are a prerequisite for this

module. If prerequisite requirements are met, this module may be taught alone.

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 8: High/Very High Radiation Area Training

II. MODULE OUTLINE

A. High and Very High Radiation Area Definitions

(EO1 Define “High Radiation Area” and “Very High Radiation Area”)

1. High Radiation Area

A High Radiation Area is any area, accessible to individuals, in which radiation levels

could result in an individual receiving an equivalent dose to the whole body in excess of

0.1 rem (100 mrem), but less than or equal to 500 rad in one hour at 30 centimeters from

the radiation source or from any surface that the radiation penetrates. (30 cm is

approximately equal to 1 foot)

2. Very High Radiation Area

A Very High Radiation Area is any area, accessible to individuals, in which radiation

levels could result in an individual receiving an absorbed dose in excess of 500 rads in

one hour at 1 meter from a radiation source or from any surface that the radiation

penetrates. (1 m is slightly more than 1 yard - 39.37 inches)

B. Signs and Postings

1. High Radiation Area

High Radiation Areas will be posted with a standard radiation symbol colored magenta

(or black) on a yellow background, reading:

“CAUTION”

“DANGER

HIGH RADIATION AREA”

(Show sign)

Additionally the posting may state:

“Personnel Dosimeter, Supplemental Dosimeters,

and RWP Required for Entry”

2.Very High Radiation Area

Very High Radiation Areas will be posted with a standard radiation symbol colored

magenta (or black) on a yellow background, reading:

“GRAVE DANGER,

VERY HIGH RADIATION AREA”

(Show sign)

Additionally the posting may state:

“Special Controls Required for Entry”

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 8: High/Very High Radiation Area Training

Some HRAs and VHRAs only exist when machinery is energized, such as radiation

producing devices. For example, a posting could be:

“High Radiation Area When Warning Light is On”

“Controlled Area When Warning Light is Off”

3. Radiation sources

(EO2 Identify sources and locations that may produce High Radiation Areas and Very

High Radiation Areas at the site)

(Insert facility/site-specific information on radiation sources that can produce High/Very

High Radiation Areas and the location of each.)

Table 8-1

High and Very High Radiation Area

Definitions and sources (Objectives EO1 and EO2)

Sign

Definition

Sources

Insert HRA sign

> 100 mrem in 1 hour

This is taken at 30 centimeters from the

source of radiation or any surface that the

radiation penetrates.

(Insert facility/site-

specific sources and

locations.)

Insert VHRA sign

> 500 rad in 1 hour

This is taken at 100 centimeters from the

source of radiation, or any surface that the

radiation penetrates.

(Insert facility/site-

specific sources and

locations.)

C. Entry, Work In, and Exit from High Radiation Areas

(EO3 State the minimum requirements for entering, working in, and exiting High Radiation Areas)

1. Minimum requirements for entering HRAs

a. Appropriate training (e.g., Radiological Worker I Training plus High Radiation Area

Training or Radiological Worker II Training).

b. Worker signature on the appropriate Radiological Work Permit (RWP).

c. Personal and supplemental dosimeter.

d. Survey meter(s) or dose rate indicating device available at the work area (may be

required for certain jobs). (Workers need to receive proper training prior to using a

dose rate indicating device)

e. Access control.

f. A radiation survey prior to first entry.

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 8: High/Very High Radiation Area Training

g. Notification of operations personnel.

h. Additional requirements where dose rates are greater than 1 rem in an hour. These

should include:

1) Determination of worker’s current dose.

2) Pre-job briefing, as applicable.

3) Review and determination by the RCO regarding the level of RC technician

coverage.

4) Access Points secured by control devices (required by 10 CFR 835).

i. Additional measures to ensure personnel are not able to gain unauthorized or

inadvertent access to Very High Radiation Areas.

j. (Insert facility/site-specific information.)

2. Minimum requirements for working in HRAs

(EO3 State the minimum requirements for entering, working in, and exiting High Radiation

Areas)

a. Don’t loiter.

b. Practice ALARA.

c. (Insert facility/site-specific information.)

3. Minimum requirements for exiting HRAs

(EO3 State the minimum requirements for entering, working in, and exiting High Radiation

Areas)

No controls shall be established in a Radiological Area that would prevent rapid

evacuation of personnel.

a. Sign out on RWP, as applicable.

b. (Insert facility/site-specific information.)

D. Access Controls for High and Very High Radiation Areas

There are different controls that are used to prevent the inadvertent entry or unauthorized

access into Radiological Areas. The following identifies administrative and physical controls

that are used for HRAs.

1. Administrative controls

(EO4 State the administrative and physical controls for access to High Radiation Areas)

The following are administrative controls that may be used to control access to HRAs.

These are used in addition to physical controls.

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 8: High/Very High Radiation Area Training

a. Formal radiological reviews.

b. RWPs.

c. Pre-job briefings.

d. Procedures.

e. Postings.

f. Administrative control levels (ACLs).

g. (Insert facility/site-specific information.)

2. Physical controls

(EO4 State the administrative and physical controls for access to High Radiation Areas)

One or more of the following features should be used for each entrance or access point to

an HRA and shall be used for HRAs >1 rem in any one hour at 30 cm from the radiation

source or any surface the radiation penetrates.

It should be noted again that no controls shall be established in an HRA or VHRA that

would prevent rapid evacuation of personnel.

a. A control device that prevents entry or upon entry causes the radiation level to be

reduced below that level defining an HRA.

b. An automatic device that prevents use or operation of the radiation source.

c. A control device that energizes a visible or audible alarm.

d. Entryways that are locked. Maintain positive control over each entry.

e. Continuous direct or electronic surveillance.

f. A control device that will automatically generate audible and visual alarm signals to

alert personnel in the area before use or operation of the radiation source and in

sufficient time to permit evacuation of the area or activation of a secondary control

device that will prevent use or operation of the source.

g. (Insert facility/site-specific information.)

3. Consequences of violating radiological signs or postings, or bypassing physical access

controls:

a. Equipment damage.

b. Personnel injury.

c. Excessive and unplanned personnel exposure.

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Module 8: High/Very High Radiation Area Training

d. Disciplinary action.

Access to VHRAs

Due to the extremely high dose rates in a VHRA, personnel access to these areas needs to be

strictly monitored and controlled. Additional training would be required, as well as enhanced

monitoring.

III. SUMMARY

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

IV. EVALUATION

(Refer to RWT Program Manual Guide for evaluation guidance)

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 9: Radioactive Contamination Control

Prerequisites: Core Academics - (Modules 1-7)

Terminal Objective:

Given different types of radioactive contamination, identify the methods used to control the spread

of radioactive contamination in accordance with lesson material.

Enabling Objectives:

The participant will be able to select the correct response from a group of responses to verify

his/her ability to:

EO1 Define fixed, removable, and airborne radioactivity.

EO2 State sources of radioactive contamination.

EO3 State the appropriate response to a spill of radioactive material.

EO4 Identify methods used to control radioactive contamination.

EO5 Identify the proper use of protective clothing.

EO6 Identify the purpose and use of personnel contamination monitors.

EO7 Identify the normal methods used for decontamination.

EO8 Define “Contamination,” “High Contamination,” and “Airborne Radioactivity Areas.”

EO9 Identify the minimum requirements for entering, working in, and exiting Contamination,

High Contamination, and Airborne Radioactivity Areas.

Instructional Aids:

1. Student Guide

2. Transparencies

3. Activities (as applicable)

4. Self-check quizzes (as applicable)

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 9: Radioactive Contamination Control

I. MODULE INTRODUCTION

A. Self Introduction

1. Name

2. Phone Number

3. Background

B. Module Overview

This module is designed to inform the worker about radioactive contamination and discuss

methods used to control the spread of contamination.

C. Objectives Review

D. Introduction

Contamination control is one of the important aspects of radiological protection. Using

proper contamination control practices helps to ensure a safe working environment. It is

important for all employees to recognize potential sources of contamination and to use

appropriate contamination control methods.

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 9: Radioactive Contamination Control

II. MODULE OUTLINE

A. Comparison of Ionizing Radiation and Radioactive Contamination

1. Ionizing radiation

Energy (particles or rays) emitted from radioactive atoms or generated from machines

such as X-ray machines that can cause ionization (e.g., gamma rays, X rays, beta

particles, and other particles capable of ionizing atoms).

2. Radioactive contamination

Radioactive material is material that contains radioactive atoms. When radioactive

material is properly contained, it still emits radiation and may be an external dose hazard,

but it is not a contamination hazard. When radioactive material escapes its container, it is

then referred to as radioactive contamination, i.e., radioactive material in an undesired

location.

3. Radiation is energy; contamination is a material.

B. Types of Contamination

(EO1 Define fixed, removable, and airborne radioactivity)

Radioactive contamination can be fixed, removable, or airborne.

1. Fixed contamination is contamination that cannot be easily removed from surfaces.

a. It cannot be removed by casual contact.

b. It may be released when the surface is disturbed (buffing, grinding, using volatile

liquids for cleaning, cutting piping internally contaminated, etc.).

c. Over time it may “weep,” leach, or otherwise become loose or removable.

2. Removable contamination is contamination that can easily be removed from surfaces.

Any object that comes in contact with it may become contaminated.

a. It may be transferred by casual contact, wiping, brushing, or washing.

b. Air movement across removable contamination could cause the contamination to

become airborne.

3. Airborne radioactivity is radioactive contamination suspended in air.

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Module 9: Radioactive Contamination Control

Table 9-1

Types of Radioactive Contamination

Types

Definitions (Objective EO1)

Fixed

Contamination

Cannot be removed by casual contact.

It may be released when the surface is disturbed

(buffing, grinding, using volatile liquids for

cleaning, cutting piping internally contaminated,

etc.).

Over time, may become loose or removable.

Removable

Contamination

May be transferred by casual contact.

Any object that makes contact with it may in turn

become contaminated.

Air movement across removable contamination may

cause the contamination to become airborne.

Airborne

Radioactivity

Airborne radioactivity is radioactive contamination

suspended in the air.

C. Radioactive Contamination

(EO2 State sources of radioactive contamination)

Radiological work is required in areas and in systems that are contaminated by design (e.g.,

maintenance of valves in radioactive fluid systems).

Regardless of the precautions taken, radioactive material will sometimes contaminate objects,

areas, and people.

1. Sources

The following are some sources of radioactive contamination.

a. Leaks or breaks in radioactive fluid systems.

b. Leaks or breaks in air-handling systems for radioactive areas.

c. Airborne radioactivity depositing on surfaces.

d. Leaks or tears in radioactive material containers such as barrels, plastic bags or

boxes.

e. Another common cause of contamination is sloppy work practices. These may lead

to contamination of tools, equipment, and workers. Examples include:

1) Opening radioactive systems without proper controls.

2) Poor housekeeping in contaminated areas.

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 9: Radioactive Contamination Control

3) Excessive motion or movement in areas of higher contamination.

4) Improper usage of step-off pads and change areas.

5) Violation of contamination control ropes and boundaries.

f. Hot particles: Small, sometimes microscopic pieces of highly radioactive material

may escape containment. These pieces are known as “hot particles.”

1) Hot particles may be present when contaminated systems leak or are opened.

These particles may also be present when machining, cutting, or grinding is

performed on highly radioactive materials.

2) Hot particles can cause a high, localized radiation dose in a short period of time

if they remain in contact with skin.

2. Indicators of possible contamination:

Radiological workers should be aware of potential radioactive contamination problems.

Potential contamination problems should be reported to the Radiological Controls

Organization. Examples include:

a. Leaks, spills, or standing water that is possibly from a radioactive fluid system.

b. Damaged or leaking radioactive material containers.

c. Open radioactive systems with no observable controls.

d. Dust/dirt accumulations in radioactive contamination areas.

e. Torn or damaged tents and glove bags or containments on radioactive systems.

3. Radiological worker response to a spill of radioactive material

(EO3 State the appropriate response to a spill of radioactive material)

Each of the examples listed above may be a spill of radioactive material. Here is the

minimum response to a spill of radioactive material:

a. Stop or secure the operation causing the spill, if qualified.

b. Warn others in the area.

c. Isolate the area.

d. Minimize exposure to radiation and contamination.

e. Secure unfiltered ventilation, if qualified to do so .

f. Notify Radiological Control personnel.

D. Contamination Control Methods

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 9: Radioactive Contamination Control

Every radiological worker should perform work in such a manner as to minimize the

generation of radioactive contamination and confine the spread of radioactive contamination

to the smallest area possible. By controlling contamination, the worker minimizes the

potential for internal exposure, and personnel contamination can be minimized.

Examples of methods used to control the spread of radioactive contamination follow:

(Identify methods used to control radioactive contamination)

1. Prevention

A sound maintenance program can prevent many radioactive material releases.

a. Establish a solid routine maintenance program for operating systems to minimize

failures and leaks that lead to contamination.

b. Repair leaks as soon as identified to prevent a more serious problem.

c. Establish adequate work controls before starting jobs.

d. During pre-job briefings, discuss measures that will help reduce or prevent

contamination spread. The agreed upon measures should be implemented by

workers at the job site.

e. Change protective gear (e.g., gloves) as necessary (typically as directed by

Radiological Control personnel) to prevent cross-contamination.

f. Stage areas to prevent contamination spread from work activities.

1) Cover work area to minimize cleanup afterward.

2) Cover piping/equipment below a work area to prevent dripping contamination

onto cleaner areas.

3) Cap contaminated pipes or systems when not in use.

g. Prepare tools and equipment to prevent contamination.

1) Bag or sleeve hoses and lines to prevent contamination.

2) Minimize the equipment and tools taken into and out of contamination areas.

3) Cover/tape tools or equipment used during the job to minimize decontamination

after the job (i.e., taping up a screwdriver before use).

h. Use good housekeeping practices; clean up during and after jobs.

“Good Housekeeping” is a prime factor in an effective contamination control

program. Each radiological worker should keep his/her work area neat and clean to

control the spread of contamination.

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 9: Radioactive Contamination Control

i. Use standard contamination control procedures as established by the Radiological

Control Organization.

1) Do not violate contamination area ropes or barricades.

2) Frisk materials out of contamination areas as directed by site procedures.

3) Use change areas and step-off pads as directed.

4) Do not pass items out of contamination areas without following site procedures.

5) Be alert for potential violations to contamination control procedures.

j. Ensure ventilation systems are operating as designed (i.e., no unauthorized

modifications).

k. Radiological workers should always ensure that the proper entry, exit, and equipment

control procedures are used to avoid the spread of contamination. Comply with

procedures!!

2. Engineering controls

(Identify methods used to control radioactive contamination)

a. Ventilation

1) Systems and temporary spot ventilation (e.g., temporary enclosures with HEPA

filters) are designed to maintain airflow from areas of least contamination to

areas of most contamination (e.g., clean to contaminated to highly contaminated

areas).

2) A slight negative pressure is maintained on buildings/rooms/enclosures where

potential contamination exists.

3) High efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters are used to remove radioactive

particles from the air. (HEPA - high efficiency particulate air filter)

b. Containment

Permanent and temporary containments are used for contamination control.

Examples include vessels, pipes, cells, glovebags, gloveboxes, tents, huts, and plastic

coverings.

3. Personal Protective Measures

Sometimes engineering controls cannot eliminate contamination. Personnel protective

measures, such as protective clothing and respiratory equipment, will be used at this

point.

a. Protective clothing

(EO5 Identify the proper use of protective clothing)

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 9: Radioactive Contamination Control

1) Protective clothing is required for entering areas containing contamination and

airborne radioactivity levels above specified limits to prevent personnel

contamination.

2) The amount and type of protective clothing required is dependent on work area

radiological conditions and nature of the job.

3) Personal effects such as watches, rings, jewelry, etc., should not be worn.

4) Full protective clothing generally consists of:

a) Coveralls.

b) Cotton liners.

c) Rubber gloves.

d) Shoe covers.

e) Rubber overshoes.

f) Hood.

NOTE: Cotton glove liners may be worn inside rubber gloves for comfort, but

should not be worn alone or considered as a layer of protection against

contamination.

5) Proper use of protective clothing

a) Inspect protective clothing for rips, tears, or holes prior to use. If you find

damaged protective clothing, discard properly.

b) Supplemental and multiple dosimeters should be worn as prescribed by the

Radiological Control Organization.

c) After donning protective clothing, proceed directly from the dress-out area

to the work area.

d) Avoid getting coveralls wet. Wet coveralls provide a means for

contamination to reach the skin/clothing.

e) Contact Radiological Control personnel if clothing becomes ripped, wet, or

otherwise compromised.

b. Respiratory protection equipment

This is used to prevent the inhalation of radioactive materials. This training course

DOES NOT qualify a worker to wear respiratory protection equipment.

E. Contamination Monitoring Equipment

(EO6 Identify the purpose and use of personnel contamination monitors)

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 9: Radioactive Contamination Control

1. Purpose

Contamination monitoring equipment is used to detect radioactive contamination on

personnel and equipment.

2. Types and uses

Hand Held Contamination Monitor:

(Modify with facility/site-specific procedures as necessary)

a. Verify instrument is in service, set to proper scale, and has functioning audio

equipment.

b. Note background count rate at frisking station.

c. Frisk hands before picking up the probe.

d. Hold probe approximately ½ inch from surface being surveyed for beta/gamma and

¼ inch for alpha.

e. Move probe slowly over surface, approximately 2 inches per second.

f. Perform frisk as follows:

(DOE RCS)

1) Head (pause at mouth and nose for approximately 5 seconds).

2) Neck and shoulders.

3) Arms (pause at each elbow).

4) Chest and abdomen.

5) Back, hips, and seat of pants.

6) Legs (pause at each knee).

7) Shoe tops.

8) Shoe bottoms (pause at sole and heel).

9) Personal and supplemental dosimetry.

g. The whole body survey should take at least 2-3 minutes.

h. Carefully return the probe to holder. The probe should be placed on the side or face

up to allow the next person to monitor.

i. If the count rate increases during frisking, pause for 5-10 seconds over the area to

provide adequate time for instrument response. When scanning for contamination

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 9: Radioactive Contamination Control

there is a delay in instrument response and the cause of the increased count rate

might be back a short distance from where the increased count rate was observed

j. Take appropriate action if contamination is indicated:

1) Remain in the area.

2) Notify Radiological Control personnel.

3) Minimize cross-contamination (e.g., put a glove on a contaminated hand).

F. Decontamination

(EO7 Identify the normal methods used for decontamination)

Decontamination is the removal of radioactive materials from locations where it is not

wanted. If removable contamination is discovered, decontamination is the normal means of

control.

1. Personnel decontamination

a) Normally accomplished using mild soap and lukewarm water per radiological control

organization instructions.

b) More aggressive decontamination techniques are performed under the guidance of

the Radiological Controls Organization.

2. Equipment and area decontamination

Equipment and area decontamination is the removal of radioactive materials from tools,

equipment, floors, and other surfaces in the work area.

NOTE: In some situations, decontamination is not possible.

a. Economic considerations

: Cost of time and labor to decontaminate the location may

outweigh the hazards of the contamination present.

b. Radiological conditions

: Radiation dose rates or other radiological conditions may

present hazards which exceed the benefits of decontamination. The decontamination

activity may not be ALARA, in that it costs, rather than saves personnel dose.

c. Hazardous conditions

: The physical or chemical conditions in the area may prevent

entry for decontamination purposes.

G. Types of Contamination Areas

(EO8 Define “Contamination,” “High Contamination,” and “Airborne Radioactivity Areas”)

1. Definitions and posting requirements

a. Contamination Area

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 9: Radioactive Contamination Control

A Contamination Area is an area where removable contamination levels exceed or

are likely to exceed the limits specified in 10 CFR 835 Appendix D, but do not

exceed 100 times these levels. Posting requirements include:

“CAUTION, CONTAMINATION AREA"

b. High Contamination Area

(Discuss facility/site specific program for other information such as training,

dosimetry, and PPE requirements)

A High Contamination Area is an area where contamination levels exceed or are

likely to exceed 100 times the Contamination Area limits. Posting requirements

include:

“DANGER or CAUTION, HIGH CONTAMINATION AREA”

(Show sign)

Additionally, the posting may state:

“RWP REQUIRED FOR ENTRY”

c. Airborne Radioactivity Area

An Airborne Radioactivity Area is an area where airborne radioactivity exceeds

specified limits. Posting requirements include:

“CAUTION OR DANGER, AIRBORNE RADIOACTIVITY AREA”

(Show sign)

additionally the posting may state:

“RWP REQUIRED FOR ENTRY”

2. Minimum requirements for entering Contamination, High Contamination, and Airborne

Radioactivity Areas without an escort.

(EO9 Identify the minimum requirements for entering, working in, and exiting

Contamination, High Contamination, and Airborne Radioactivity Areas)

a. Appropriate training, such as Radiological Worker II training.

b. Personnel dosimetry, as appropriate.

c. Protective clothing and respiratory protection as specified in the RWP.

d. Worker's signature on the RWP, as applicable.

e. Pre-job briefings, as applicable.

f. (Insert facility/site-specific information.)

3. Minimum requirements for working in Contamination, High Contamination, and

Airborne Radioactivity Areas.

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 9: Radioactive Contamination Control

(EO9 Identify the minimum requirements for entering, working in, and exiting

Contamination, High Contamination, and Airborne Radioactivity Areas)

a. Avoid unnecessary contact with contaminated surfaces.

b. Secure equipment (lines, hoses, cables, etc.,) to prevent them from crossing in and

out of contamination areas.

c. When possible, wrap or sleeve materials, equipment, and hoses.

d. Place contaminated materials in appropriate containers when finished.

e. Do not touch exposed skin surfaces. High levels of skin contamination can cause a

significant skin dose. It may also lead to internal contamination with radioactive

material.

f. Avoid stirring contamination as it could become airborne.

g. Do not smoke, eat, drink, or chew. Do not put anything in your mouth.

h. Exit immediately if a wound occurs or if your protective clothing is compromised

(e.g., becomes wet, torn, or otherwise compromised.)

i. (Insert facility/site-specific information.)

4. Minimum requirement for exiting Contamination, High Contamination, and Airborne

Radioactivity Areas.

(EO9 Identify the minimum requirements for entering, working in, and exiting Contamination,

High Contamination, and Airborne Radioactivity Areas)

a. Exit only at step-off pad.

b. Remove protective clothing carefully. Follow posted instructions.

c. Frisk or be frisked for contamination when exiting a contaminated area. If personal

contamination is found, stay in the area, notify the Radiological Control Technician,

and minimize the potential for cross contamination.

d. Survey all tools and equipment prior to removal from the area.

e. Observe RWP and control point guidelines.

f. Use proper techniques to remove protective clothing.

g. Do not smoke, eat, drink, or chew.

h. Do not put anything in your mouth.

i. When exiting, perform a whole-body frisk at the location provided by the

Radiological Control Organization. If personal contamination is found, stay in the

area, notify the Radiological Control Technician, and minimize the potential for

cross-contamination (e.g., place a glove over a contaminated hand).

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 9: Radioactive Contamination Control

H. Lessons Learned

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

III. SUMMARY

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

IV. EVALUATION

(Refer to RWT Program Manual Guide for evaluation guidance)

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 10.1: Practical Factors for Radiological Workers I

Module 10.1: Practical Factors for Radiological Worker I

Prerequisites: xxx Successful completion of a written examination based on modules 1-7 must

be accomplished prior to the evaluation of the practical factors.

NOTE: This module may be taught prior to the written examination, but the

student should not be evaluated until he/she successfully completes the written

examination.

Terminal Objective:

Given an RWP, a simulated radiological area, and the necessary materials and tools, the student

will enter, work in, and exit the area using ALARA techniques in accordance with Radiological

Control procedures.

Enabling Objectives:

Given an RWP, a simulated radiological area, and applicable materials, the student will:

EO1 Identify and comply with RWP requirements.

EO2 Record appropriate information on the RWP.

EO3 Select and wear dosimeter(s) as per RWP.

EO4 Enter a simulated area and perform a specified task/job using ALARA techniques.

EO5 Respond to abnormal radiological conditions and alarms.

EO6 Monitor for personnel contamination in accordance with posted instructions.

Instructional Aids:

1. Student Guide

2. Attachments to Module 10.3 (Instructor use only)

• Attachment 1 - Instructions for Evaluators

• Attachment 2 - Sample Grading Checklist

• Attachment 3 - Sample Job Scenario

• Attachment 4 - Sample Survey Map

• Attachment 5 - Sample Questions

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 10.1: Practical Factors for Radiological Workers I

I. MODULE INTRODUCTION

A. Self Introduction

1. Name

2. Background

B. Module Overview

(Instructors should review Module 10.3, Attachment 1, “Instructions for Evaluators” for guidance

on: pre-staging mock-up area, establishing scoring criteria, conducting evaluation)

1. Demonstration/activities

The practical factors module consists of various activities/demonstrations that are led by

the instructor, but participation by the entire class is encouraged. These activities are

provided as a practice session for the student before he/she is evaluated.

This module will:

a. Provide the radiological worker with “hands-on” training.

b. Apply the basic knowledge and skills obtained from the theory portions of

Radiological Worker Training that are required to enter and exit Radiological Buffer

Areas and Radiation Areas at the site.

c. Review good radiological work practices.

d. Review lessons learned (when applicable) from on-site and off-site occurrences.

2. Evaluation

(Inform students that the evaluation is based on the objectives)

Upon completion of the “hands on” training, each student shall demonstrate the ability to

enter, work in, and exit a simulated Radiological Buffer Area/Radiation Area following

facility/site-specific guidelines. The scope of the practical evaluation shall cover the topics as

discussed in Attachment 1. (See Module 10.3, Attachment 2, for a sample scoring checklist)

C. Objectives Review

1. Terminal objective

2. Enabling objectives

D. Introduction

Prior knowledge of radiological conditions can reduce the potential for personnel radiation

dose. Using proper radiological techniques and information provided by Radiological Control

personnel will help ensure a safe working environment for all employees.

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 10.1: Practical Factors for Radiological Workers I

II. MODULE OUTLINE

(Suggested activities for conducting this practical exercise are cited in the body of the lesson plan.

The suggestions may be used as is or altered to fit the need of the facility/site)

This module allows each student to practice identifying requirements for

entering, working in, and exiting a simulated Radiological Buffer Area and Radiation Area using

ALARA techniques. The instructor should correct errors or answer student questions.

A. Review an Appropriate Radiological Work Permit (RWP)

(EO1 Identify and comply with RWP requirements DOE RCS, Articles 321-323)

Each worker must review an RWP to identify the specific requirements and special

instructions for the job.

· Suggest: Using a facility/site-specific RWP and, if applicable, a survey map, conduct a

pre-job brief. Have students review the RWP and survey map and answer questions

regarding each.

· Suggest: Conduct small group activity where one group can give the brief to the rest of

the class or provide a questionnaire and have groups complete.

· Incorporate lessons learned occurrences, if applicable. (Demonstrate or discuss

occurrence.)

B. Record the Appropriate Information on the RWP

(EO2 Record appropriate information on the RWP, DOE RCS, Article 322)

After reviewing the RWP and identifying the applicable requirements, workers must record

the appropriate information.

· Suggest: Using a facility/site-specific RWP, have students practice completing

appropriate information on RWP sign-in sheet.

· Incorporate lessons learned occurrences, if applicable. (Demonstrate or discuss

occurrence.)

C. Select and Wear Required Dosimeter(s)

(EO3 Select and wear dosimeter(s) as per RWP, DOE RCS, Chapter 5)

Radiological Control personnel identify the dosimeter requirements necessary for entry on the

RWP. Supplemental pocket dosimeters should be worn near the primary dosimeter.

· Suggest: Using a facility/site-specific RWP, have students select dosimeter(s) per RWP

and properly wear the device.

· Incorporate lessons learned occurrences, if applicable. (Demonstrate or discuss

occurrences.)

D. Enter Simulated Area and Demonstrate ALARA Techniques

(EO4 Enter a simulated area and perform a specified task/job using ALARA techniques)

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 10.1: Practical Factors for Radiological Workers I

· Suggest: From this point on, the instructor should demonstrate entering, performing tasks

,and exiting simulated area using the techniques listed in the lesson plan. This

demonstration should cover sections D and E of this lesson plan. After instructor has

completed demonstration, if practical, have student do the same.

· Incorporate lessons learned occurrences, if applicable (Demonstrate or discuss

occurrences).

Once the worker has donned the dosimeter(s) and recorded the appropriate information on the

RWP sign in sheet, he/she should proceed directly to the work area. At a minimum, the

following ALARA techniques should be used.

1. Take only the necessary tools and equipment into a Radiological Buffer Area or a

Radiation Area.

2. Read and comply with all posted instructions.

3. Perform work safely and efficiently.

4. Use time, distance, and shielding.

a. When possible, maximize distance from higher levels of radiation.

b. When possible, stay in areas that have lower levels of radiation.

c. Do not loiter in the Radiation Area or Radiological Buffer Area.

5. Use good housekeeping techniques.

6. Advise Radiological Control personnel of any unusual conditions or situations that may

alter the status of the job or the work area.

(EO5 Respond to abnormal radiological conditions and alarms)

· Suggestion: During demonstration, pre-stage abnormal situations and discuss

appropriate response.

· Abnormal situations or conditions may include off-scale dosimeter, spill of water,

shielding that has slipped, posting that is different from pre-job brief information,

etc.

7. Take appropriate actions to radiological alarms. Be familiar with location of area

monitors.

8. Personnel and equipment must be monitored.

E. Monitor for Contamination

(EO6 Monitor for personnel contamination in accordance with posted instructions)

Immediately upon exiting an RBA that contains a Contamination, High Contamination Area,

or Airborne Radioactivity Area, you are required to monitor for contamination.

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 10.1: Practical Factors for Radiological Workers I

· Suggest: Using facility/site-specific posted instructions and contamination control

techniques, monitor for contamination. If practical, have students do the same.

· Incorporate lessons learned occurrences, if applicable (demonstrate or discuss

occurrences).

III. SUMMARY

The practical factor exercise provided an opportunity for each student to practice the skills

required to safely perform work within a simulated radiological area.

IV. EVALUATION

A. Review Evaluation Rules/Process

Each facility/site must develop a practical factors evaluation. Incorporating the requirements

of the DOE Radiological Control Standard is recommended, and facility/site-specific

procedures should also be included (guidance for conducting a practical factors evaluation is

contained in Attachment 1).

1. Review areas to be evaluated

Students should be evaluated based on:

a. Pre-job preparation

1) Wearing of dosimeter(s).

2) Compliance with RWP, work documents. Understanding of RWP requirements

and survey data.

3) Compliance with facility/site-specific entry procedures.

b. Job or task performance

1) Minimization of dose.

2) Compliance with facility/site-specific procedures and RWP requirements.

3) Response to abnormal situation(s) – alarm/condition.

c. Exiting simulated area

1) Compliance with facility/site-specific procedures.

2) Self-monitoring technique.

2. Explain acceptable role-playing during evaluation

a. Student responsibilities

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 10.1: Practical Factors for Radiological Workers I

Students are expected to conduct themselves as though the evaluation was in an

actual radiological area (e.g., chewing gum is not permitted).

b. Instructor interface/responsibilities

Evaluators have two main roles during the evaluation:

1) The primary role is to evaluate whether student performs the entire scenario in

accordance with pre-established criteria.

2) The secondary role is to role-play as Radiological Control specialist, supervisor,

co-worker, etc., to relay information that is necessary for the role-playing

evaluation.

B. Review Pass/Fail Criteria

(Guidance for establishing scoring criteria is contained in Attachment 1.)

C. Provide Students With Necessary Documentation/ Materials for Evaluation

Once the facility/site-specific pass/fail criteria has been reviewed, provide the following

materials at a minimum for the evaluation:

1. RWP.

2. Work procedure or task assignment (scenario). (Attachment 2 is an example.)

3. Survey map of area (optional). (Attachment 4 is an example.)

4. Dosimeter(s).

5. Any other applicable item(s).

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 10.2: Practical Factors for High Radiation Areas

Prerequisites: The instructional material of this module may be presented prior to the written

examination; however, participants must pass a written examination based on the

High Radiation Areas module before being evaluated in accordance with the

guidelines of this module.

Terminal Objective:

Given an RWP, a simulated High Radiation Area and the necessary materials and tools, the

student will enter, work in, and exit the area using ALARA techniques in accordance with

Radiological Control procedures.

Enabling Objectives:

Given an RWP, a simulated radiological area, and applicable materials, the student will:

EO1 Identify and comply with RWP requirements.

EO2 Record appropriate information on the RWP.

EO3 Select and wear appropriate dosimeter(s) as per RWP.

EO4 Enter a simulated High Radiation Area and perform a specified task/job using ALARA

techniques.

EO5 Respond to abnormal radiological conditions and alarms.

EO6 Demonstrate proper exit from a simulated High Radiation Area.

Instructional Aids:

1. Student Guide

2. Attachments to Module 10.3 (Instructor use only)

• Attachment 1 - Instructions for Evaluators

• Attachment 2 - Sample Grading Checklist

• Attachment 3 - Sample Job Scenario

• Attachment 4 - Sample Survey Map

• Attachment 5 - Sample Questions

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 10.2: Practical Factors for High Radiation Areas

I. MODULE INTRODUCTION

A. Self Introduction

1. Name

2. Phone Number

3. Background

B. Module Overview

1. Demonstration/activities

(Instructors should review Module 10.3, Attachment 1, “Instructions for Evaluators” for

guidance on: pre-staging mock-up area, establishing scoring criteria, conducting

evaluation)

The practical factors module consists of various activities/demonstrations that are led by

the instructor, but participation by the entire class is encouraged. These activities are

provided as a practice session for the participant before he/she is evaluated.

This module will:

a. Provide the Radiological Worker with "hands-on" training.

b. Apply the knowledge obtained from the theory portions of High Radiation Area

training.

c. Review good radiological work practices for dose control.

d. Review lessons learned (as applicable) from on-site and off-site occurrences.

2. Evaluation

(Inform students that the evaluation is based on the objectives)

Upon completion of the presentation, each participant shall demonstrate the ability to

enter, work in, and exit a simulated High Radiation Area following facility/site-specific

guidelines. The scope of the practical evaluation shall cover the topics as discussed in

Attachment 1.

(See Module 10.3, Attachment 2, for a sample scoring checklist)

C. Objectives Review

D. Introduction

Prior knowledge of radiological conditions can reduce unnecessary personnel exposure.

Using proper radiological techniques and information provided by Radiological Control

personnel will help ensure a safe working environment for all employees.

Each site shall develop a practical factors evaluation for High Radiation Areas (as applicable).

The site may choose to incorporate the High Radiation Area practical factor into the

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 10.2: Practical Factors for High Radiation Areas

Radiological Worker I practical factors, or develop a separate practical factors lesson for High

Radiation Areas.

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 10.2: Practical Factors for High Radiation Areas

II. MODULE OUTLINE

Entry, Work, and Exit Requirements

The instructor should evaluate student knowledge of requirements. Suggested items to be

evaluated follow:

A. Identify High Radiation Area signs.

B. State special controls on RWP.

C. State area radiation levels (with appropriate units).

D. State facility/site-specific administrative control levels.

E. Select dosimetry in accordance with RWP.

F. Wear dosimetry in accordance with procedures.

G. Perform pre-operational checks (as appropriate) on survey meter and/or dose rate indicating

device.

H. Record appropriate information on RWP prior to entry.

I. Verify current radiation survey prior to first entry.

J. Enter only areas designated on RWP.

K. Maximize distance from higher radiation areas.

L. Do not loiter.

M. State appropriate actions to take when a radiation area monitor alarms.

N. Record appropriate information on RWP upon exit.

III. SUMMARY

The practical factor exercise provided an opportunity for each student to practice the skills

required to safely perform work within a simulated High Radiation Area.

IV. EVALUATION

A. Review Evaluation Rules/Process

Each facility/site must develop a practical factors evaluation. Incorporating the requirements

of the DOE Radiological Control Technical Standard and facility/site-specific procedures is

recommended (guidance for conducting a practical factors evaluation is contained in

Attachment 1).

1. Review the skills to be evaluated for each student:

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 10.2: Practical Factors for High Radiation Areas

a. Pre-job preparation

1) Donning of dosimeter(s).

2) Compliance with RWP, work documents. Understanding of RWP requirements

and survey data.

3) Compliance with facility/site-specific entry procedures.

b. Job or task performance

1) Minimization of dose.

2) Compliance with facility/site-specific procedures and RWP requirements.

3) Response to abnormal situation(s) – alarm/condition.

c. Exiting simulated area

1) Compliance with facility/site-specific procedures.

2) Self-monitoring technique.

2. Explain acceptable role-playing during evaluation

a. Student responsibilities

Students are expected to conduct themselves as though the evaluation was in an

actual radiological area (e.g., chewing gum is not permitted).

B. Review Pass/Fail Criteria

(Guidance for establishing scoring criteria is contained in Attachment 1.)

C. Provide Students With Necessary Documentation/ Materials for Evaluation

Once the facility/site-specific pass/fail criteria has been reviewed, provide the

following materials at a minimum for the evaluation:

1) RWP.

2) Work procedure or task assignment (scenario). (Attachment 2 is an example.)

3) Survey map of area (optional). (Attachment 4 is an example.)

4) Dosimeter(s).

5) Any other applicable item(s).

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 10.3: Practical Factors for Radiological Workers II

100

Module 10.3: Practical Factors for Radiological Worker II

Prerequisites: The instructional material of this module may be presented prior to the written

examination; however, students must pass a written examination based on the

modules 1-9 before being evaluated in accordance with the guidelines of this

lesson.

Terminal Objective:

Given an RWP, a simulated radiological area and the necessary materials and tools, the student

will enter, work in, and exit the area using contamination control and ALARA techniques in

accordance with Radiological Control procedures.

Enabling Objectives:

Given an RWP, a simulated radiological area, and applicable materials, the student will:

EO1 Identify and comply with RWP requirements.

EO2 Record appropriate information on the RWP.

EO3 Select and don protective clothing and dosimeter(s) as per RWP.

EO4 Enter a simulated area and perform a specific task using contamination control and

ALARA techniques.

EO5 Respond to abnormal radiological conditions and alarms.

EO6 Remove protective clothing and dosimeter(s) in accordance with facility/site-specific

instructions.

EO7 Monitor for personnel contamination in accordance with facility/site-specific instructions.

Instructional Aids:

1. Student Guide

2. Attachments (Instructor use only)

• Attachment 1 - Instructions for Evaluators

• Attachment 2 - Sample Grading Checklist

• Attachment 3 - Sample Job Scenario

• Attachment 4 - Sample Survey Map

• Attachment 5 - Sample Questions

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 10.3: Practical Factors for Radiological Workers II

101

I. MODULE INTRODUCTION

A. Self Introduction

1. Name

2. Phone Number

3. Background

B. Module Overview

1. Demonstration/activities

(Instructors should review Attachment 1, “Instructions for Evaluators” for

guidance on: pre-staging mock-up area, establishing scoring criteria, conducting

evaluation)

The practical factors unit consists of various activities/demonstrations that are led by the

instructor, but participation by the entire class is encouraged. These activities are

provided as a practice session for the student before he/she is evaluated.

This module WILL:

a. Provide the radiological worker with “hands-on” training.

b. Apply the basic knowledge and skills obtained from the theory portions of

Radiological Worker Training that are required to enter and exit radiological areas at

the site.

c. Review good radiological work practices for contamination control and dose control.

d. Review lessons learned (when applicable) from on-site and off-site occurrences.

2. Evaluation

(Inform students that the evaluation is based on the objectives)

Upon completion of the “hands on” training, each student shall demonstrate the ability to

enter, work in, and exit a simulated radiological area following facility/site-specific

guidelines. The scope of the practical evaluation shall cover the topics as discussed in

Attachment 1.

(See Attachment 2, for a sample scoring checklist)

C. Introduce Objectives

1. Terminal objective.

2. Enabling objectives.

D. Introduction

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Radiological Worker Training Instructor’s Guide

Module 10.3: Practical Factors for Radiological Workers II

102

Prior knowledge of radiological conditions and proper use of protective clothing can reduce

the potential for personnel radiation dose and contamination. Using proper radiological

techniques and information provided by Radiological Control personnel will help ensure a

safe working environment for all employees.

II. MODULE OUTLINE

(Suggested activities for conducting this practical exercise are cited in the body of the module.

The suggestions may be altered to fit facility/site needs)

This module allows each student to practice identifying work requirements for entering, working

in, and exiting a simulated radiological area using contamination control and ALARA techniques.

The instructor should correct errors or answer student questions.

A. Review an appropriate Radiological Work Permit (RWP)

(EO1 Identify and comply with RWP requirements. DOE RCS Articles 321-323)

Each worker must review an RWP to identify the specific requirements and special

instructions for the job.

• Suggest: Using a facility/site-specific RWP and, if applicable, a survey map, conduct a

pre-job brief. Have students review the RWP and survey map and answer questions

regarding each.

• Suggest: 1) Conduct small group activity where one group can give the brief to the rest of

the class. 2) Provide a questionnaire and have groups complete it.

• Incorporate lessons learned occurrences. (Demonstrate or discuss occurrence.)

B. Record the Appropriate Information on the RWP sign in sheet

(EO2 Record appropriate information on the RWP, DOE RCS Article 322)

After reviewing the RWP and identifying the applicable requirements, workers must record

the appropriate information.

• Suggest: Using a facility/site-specific RWP, have students practice completing

appropriate information on RWP sign in sheet.

• Incorporate lessons learned occurrences. (Demonstrate or discuss occurrence.)

C. Select Required Dosimeter(s) and Protective Clothing

(EO3 Select and don protective clothing and dosimeter(s) as per RWP, DOE RCS,

Appendix 3c)

• Suggest: Using a facility/site-specific RWP, have students select dosimeter(s) and

protective clothing as per RWP.

• Incorporate lessons learned occurrences. (Demonstrate or discuss occurrences.)

1. Dosimetry requirements

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103

Radiological Control personnel identify the dosimeter requirements necessary for entry

on the RWP.

a. Supplemental pocket dosimeters should be worn outside the protective clothing,

accessible to the worker.

b. Workers should protect dosimeter from contamination by placing in a coverall

pocket or in plastic bags or pouches.

2. Protective clothing

Protective clothing is provided for all employees who enter contamination areas.

a. Effective use of protective clothing will minimize skin and personal contamination.

b. The required clothing will be identified on the RWP.

D. Don Protective Clothing and Dosimeter(s)

(EO3 Select and don protective clothing and dosimeter(s) as per RWP, DOE RCS,

Appendix 3c)

Once the radiological worker has obtained appropriate items, he/she must properly don the

protective clothing. Workers should inspect protective clothing prior to use for tears, holes,

or split seams that would diminish protection. Any defective items should be replaced with

intact protective clothing.

• Suggest: Using facility/site-specific posted instructions, the instructor should don the

protective clothing. If practical have students do the same.

• Incorporate lessons learned and occurrences, if applicable. (Demonstrate or discuss

occurrences.)

E. Enter Simulated Area and Demonstrate Contamination Control and ALARA Techniques

(EO4 Enter a simulated area and perform a specific task using contamination control and

ALARA techniques)

Once the worker has donned protective clothing and recorded the appropriate information on

the RWP, he/she should proceed directly to the work area. At a minimum, the following

contamination control and ALARA techniques should be used.

• Suggest: The instructor should demonstrate entering, performing tasks, and exiting

simulated area using the techniques listed in the lesson plan. This demonstration should

cover sections E through G of this lesson plan. After instructor has completed

demonstration, if practical, have student do the same.

• Incorporate lessons learned occurrences. (Demonstrate or discuss occurrences.)

1. Take only the necessary tools and equipment into a Radiological Buffer Area or a

Contamination Area.

2. Read and comply with all posted instructions.

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3. While in a radiological area, do not touch any uncovered portions of the body.

4. Perform work safely and efficiently.

5. Use time, distance, and shielding.

a. When possible, maximize distance from higher radiation areas.

b. When possible, stay in areas that have lower contamination levels.

c. Do not loiter in the area.

d. Avoid hot spots.

6. Change outer gloves when instructed by Radiological Control personnel, or periodically

while working with contaminated or highly contaminated equipment.

7. Use good housekeeping techniques.

8. Advise Radiological Control personnel of any unusual conditions or situations that may

alter the status of the job or the work area.

(EO5 Respond to abnormal radiological conditions and alarms)

• Suggest: During demonstration, pre-stage abnormal situations, and discuss

appropriate response.

• Unusual situations or conditions may include off-scale dosimeter, spill of water,

shielding that has slipped, posting that is different from pre-job brief information,

etc.

9. Take appropriate actions to radiological alarms. Be familiar with location of area

monitors.

10. Personnel and equipment must be monitored.

F. Remove Protective Clothing and Dosimeter(s)

Once the job has been completed, the worker should proceed directly to the step-off pad area

and follow facility/site-specific instructions.

1. General requirements

(EO6 Remove protective clothing and dosimeter(s) in accordance with facility/site-

specific instructions)

a. Protective clothing should be removed without spreading contamination and, in

particular, without contaminating the skin.

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b. Workers should be instructed not to touch the skin or place anything in the mouth

during protective clothing removal.

c. Posted instructions for protective clothing removal should be posted adjacent to the

step-off pad.

2. Removal process

• Suggest: Using facility/site-specific posted instructions, remove protective clothing

and dosimeter(s). If practical, have students do the same.

• Incorporate lessons learned occurrences. (Demonstrate or discuss occurrences.)

G. Monitor for Contamination

(EO7 Monitor for personnel contamination in accordance with facility/site-specific

instructions)

Immediately upon exiting Contamination, High Contamination, Airborne Radioactivity Areas

or prior to exiting a Radiological Buffer Area that contains these areas, monitoring for

contamination is required.

• Suggest: Using facility/site-specific instructions and contamination control techniques,

monitor for contamination. If practical, have students do the same.

• Incorporate lessons learned occurrences. (Demonstrate or discuss occurrences.)

III. SUMMARY

The practical factor exercise provided an opportunity for each student to practice the skills

required to safely perform work within a simulated radiological area.

IV. EVALUATION

A. Review Evaluation Rules/Process

Each facility/site must develop a practical factors evaluation incorporating the requirements

of the DOE Radiological Control Standard and facility/site-specific procedures. (Guidance

for conducting a practical factors evaluation is contained in Attachment 1.)

1. Review areas to be evaluated

Student should be evaluated based on:

a. Pre-job preparation

1) Wearing of protective clothing and dosimeter(s).

2) Compliance with RWP, work documents. Understanding of RWP requirements

and survey data.

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3) Compliance with facility/site-specific entry procedures.

b. Job or task performance

1) Minimization of dose.

2) Contamination control practices.

3) Compliance with facility/site-specific procedures and RWP requirements.

4) Response to abnormal situation(s) – alarm/condition.

c. Exiting simulated area

1) Undress procedure (techniques and sequence).

2) Contamination control practices.

3) Compliance with facility/site-specific procedures.

4) Self-monitoring technique.

2. Explain acceptable role-playing during evaluation

a) Student responsibilities

Students are expected to conduct themselves as though the evaluation was in an

actual radiological area (e.g., chewing gum is not permitted).

b) Instructor interface/responsibilities

Evaluators have two main roles during the evaluation:

1) The primary role is to evaluate whether the student performs the entire

scenario in accordance with pre-established criteria.

2) The secondary role is to role-play as Radiological Control specialist,

supervisor, co-worker, etc., to relay information important to the conduct of

the evaluation. A list of questions permitted for the evaluation should be

identified in the lesson plan to ensure consistency within the training group

(see Attachment 5 for sample questions).

B. Review Pass/Fail Criteria

(Guidance for establishing scoring criteria is contained in Attachment 1.)

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C. Evaluation

Provide students with necessary documentation/materials for evaluation.

Once the facility/site-specific pass/fail criteria has been reviewed, provide the following

materials for the evaluation:

1. RWP.

2. Work procedure or task assignment (scenario). (Attachment 2 is an example.)

3. Survey map of area (optional). (Attachment 4 is an example.)

4. Protective clothing.

5. Dosimeter(s).

6. Any other applicable item(s).

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ATTACHMENT 1 - Instructions for Evaluators

I. INTRODUCTION

One of the criteria for successful completion of Radiological Worker Training is that the student

demonstrate proficiency in certain skill areas. Therefore, each facility/site must develop a

practical factors evaluation and should base the evaluation on the criteria set forth in the DOE

RCS, objectives listed in the practical factors unit of this program, and facility/site-specific

procedures. The practical factors exercise modules (10.1, 10.2, or 10.3) are designed as a practice

session before the students are evaluated. (See Attachment 2 for Sample Evaluation Checklist for

RW II trainees.)

This attachment provides guidance on:

• Setting-up practical factors mock-up area.

• Establishing scoring criteria for practical factors evaluation.

• Conducting the practical factors evaluation.

The guidance provided is appropriate for facilities that have both radiation and contamination

concerns. It may be modified for facilities without both concerns.

II. SET-UP PRACTICAL FACTORS MOCK-UP AREA

Instructors are required to pre-stage a mock-up area for the practical factors evaluation. (See

Attachment 4 for an example of a mock-up layout.) Once your facility/site establishes a mock-up

area, it is recommended that a mechanism be established to ensure consistency from one

evaluation to the next. (The following may not be an all inclusive list.)

A. Pre-job Brief/Dressing Area

The pre-job brief and/or dressing area may be in the classroom or in a separate change area.

The following materials should be included.

1. RWP (the RWP used for the evaluation should be different from that used in the

practice session).

2. Dosimeter(s).

3. Necessary equipment/tools for job (e.g., clipboard, tools, etc.).

4. Survey map/status board (if applicable).

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B. Simulated Radiological Area as per the DOE Radiological Control Technical Standard,

Chapter 6.

1. The Radiological Worker I and RW I with High Radiation Area practical factors should

encompass, at a minimum, the following:

a) Entering and exiting simulated Radiological Buffer Areas and Radiation Areas (and

High Radiation Areas when such training is included).

b) Performance of frisking for personnel contamination, as applicable.

c) Verification of instrument response and source check.

d) Anticipated response to alarm situations.

2. The Radiological Worker II practical factors should encompass, at a minimum, the

following:

a) Donning of protective clothing.

b) Entering a simulated Radiological Buffer Area, Contamination Area, and High

Radiation Area to perform a task.

c) Anticipated response to simulated abnormal situations.

d) Anticipated response to simulated alarms or faulty radiological control equipment.

e) Removing protective clothing and equipment and subsequently exiting the simulated

area.

f) Performance of frisking for personnel contamination.

g) Verification of instrument response and source check.

III. ESTABLISH SCORING CRITERIA

When reviewing this section and establishing facility/site-specific scoring criteria, it is

recommended that facilities review Attachment 2, “Sample Grading checklist.” This attachment is

an example of a completed checklist appropriate for RW II that uses a weighted point system and

incorporates the guidelines listed below.

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A. General Guidelines

Before developing the facility/site-specific scoring criteria, it is recommended that the

following general guidelines be considered.

1. Identify key elements or facility/site-specific procedures that relate to the objectives.

• In Attachment 2, the elements correspond to the objectives of Module 10.3.

2. Develop a checklist or grading form. (See Attachment 2. It is recommended that a

weighted point system be used.)

3. No partial credit should be given for any item graded as inadequate during the

evaluation. (Either full credit given or no credit.)

4. Student should receive a passing score of 80% or greater.

5. Develop an “Evaluation Standard.” This standard should specifically identify the

objectives and actions or non-actions that would require points to be deducted for the

objective.

B. Categorize and Define Specific Actions

Once the list of key elements is developed, it is important that each facility/site categorize the

action(s) related to the item as acceptable or unacceptable. When determining unacceptable

actions (mistakes), the following categories are suggested:

− Minor mistakes (self-identified vs. instructor-identified).

− Significant mistakes (self-identified vs. instructor-identified).

− Automatic failures.

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The following provides suggested

definitions and examples of each of the above categories.

In addition, guidelines on giving credit for the examples cited are provided.

1. Minor mistake

a. Definition

A minor mistake is one that does NOT involve any of the following:

1) Violating instructions in a manner that leads to unnecessary worker exposure.

2) Violating instructions in a manner that leads to the contamination of personnel

or clean areas.

3) Jeopardizing radiological safety and/or creating a radiological hazard.

b. Example

An example of a minor mistake is that the worker placed protective clothing in the

wrong receptacle.

1) Give credit if

minor mistake is identified by worker.

2) No credit given if

minor mistake is not identified by worker.

2. Significant mistake

a. Definition

A significant mistake is one that INVOLVES

any of the following:

1) Violating instructions in a manner that would lead to unnecessary worker

exposure.

2) Violating instructions in a manner that would lead to the contamination of

personnel or clean areas.

3) Jeopardizing personnel safety and/or creating a radiological hazard.

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b. Example

An example of a significant mistake is crossing the radiological boundary in

violation of procedures.

1) No credit is given if significant mistake is identified by worker, but do not

record an automatic failure.

2) If significant mistake is NOT

identified by worker, no credit given for specific

item and

an automatic failure is recorded.

3. Automatic failure

a. Definition

An automatic failure must be recorded if any

significant mistake is made that is NOT

identified

by the worker.

− It is recommended that if using a weighted point system, some type of numerical

value be linked to an automatic failure action. This numerical value will help

eliminate a situation where a student receives a total of 95 points out of 100, but

still fails. (A student may be confused if they're informed they received a 95%,

but did not pass.)

b. Examples of an automatic failure

The following are only examples of what may constitute an automatic failure. This

list is not an all inclusive list. It is recommended that each facility/site develop a

facility/site-specific list of automatic failure actions and provide the list to the

students.

1) Entering the area without dosimeter(s).

2) Chewing gum inside the area.

3) Reaching/entering into an area without meeting site procedural requirements.

4) Failure to monitor upon exit.

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IV. CONDUCTING EVALUATION

Once the instructor has ensured a simulated radiologically controlled area is pre-staged correctly,

it is recommended that the practical factors evaluation be conducted in accordance with the

following criteria listed in this section.

− Although the evaluation process is broken into steps (e.g., pre-brief, donning PCs (as

applicable), performing job, exiting, etc.), the instructor should evaluate the practical factors

exercise as a whole. This will permit the student to correct a mistake within a reasonable time

frame.

A. General Rules

1. Job scenarios and associated RWPs and survey maps must be developed that

incorporate all objectives.

a) The scenario used during the classroom practice lesson should not be used for the

evaluation (see Attachments 3 and 4 for sample job scenario and map).

b) The job scenario and simulated area should be such that the student has to make

decisions such as: the best path to the job location and how to best perform the

specific task. The student should DEMONSTRATE that they know where lower

radiation levels exist and how to proceed using this information. They should not be

allowed to verbally simulate the appropriate actions.

2. Student/instructor ratio should be one student per instructor.

Each student should have the undivided attention of the evaluator.

3. It is recommended that the design of the practical evaluation be such that the worker’s

actions are graded rather than the worker’s statements. If this is not feasible, verbal

responses should be limited to specific segments of the demonstration. All other

segments should be evaluated through student actions.

a) A list of questions permitted for the evaluation should be identified in the lesson plan

to ensure consistency within the training group (see Attachment 5 for sample

questions).

b) The interaction between the instructor and the student should be minimal.

4. Students should complete all phases of the practical factors evaluation even if an

automatic failure is recorded.

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114

5. Once evaluation is completed, the checklist must be reviewed with the student.

a. Note strengths.

b. Discuss any weaknesses noted.

c. Ensure both the student and the evaluator sign the checklist.

d. If student failed, discuss the failure policy.

B. Evaluation Process

The instructor should review the rules for evaluation, scoring criteria, and failure policy with

the class and then pass out the RWP for the evaluation.

NOTE: The instructor should be available for the pre-job briefing and to answer questions,

but NOT to re-teach the lesson.

1. Pre-job brief

a. Direct the class to review the RWP and survey map as a group.

- This may be done in small groups or, if class size is small, as a class.

b. Provide the opportunity for the students to ask questions.

− The instructor should not ask the questions, but allow this opportunity for

students.

c. Give directions to the storage location for materials and tools and the check-in/waiting

area and the Job Site.

2. Record appropriate information

The instructor should ask the student if he/she has any questions before the evaluation

begins.

When student questions have been answered, direct him/her to record appropriate

information on RWP.

a. Student is to record appropriate information on RWP in accordance with key points

listed for objectives.

− Instructor is to observe performance and score in accordance with key points

listed for objectives.

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b. Instructor takes the RWP from the student for use in evaluation of student’s

understanding of RWP requirements (see section 4 below). (Student should not use

RWP to answer evaluation questions.)

3. Select/wear dosimeter(s)

When the student has reviewed the RWP, he/she is to proceed to begin selecting and

wearing dosimeter(s) in accordance with the posted instructions and RWP.

a. Student is to wear dosimeter(s) in accordance with the key points listed for objectives.

b. Once dosimeter(s) is donned, student should not be allowed to view other students

performance during evaluation. Doing so may provide the waiting student an unfair

advantage.

4. Evaluate understanding of RWP requirements

Instructor is to question the student on RWP requirements in accordance with the key

points listed for the objectives. (See Attachment 5 for sample questions.) This may be

accomplished by the instructor playing the role of a control point technician discussing

the entry with the student.

a. Each student must state the purpose for entering area.

− If student does not volunteer that information, the instructor should ask the two

questions listed for the objectives.

b. Each student must state the radiation levels in the area.

− If the student does not volunteer that information, the instructor should ask two

of the key questions listed for the objectives.

c. Each student must state the special instructions identified on the RWP.

− If the student does not volunteer that information, the instructor should ask one

of the key questions listed for objectives.

5. Visual evaluation of compliance with donning instructions and RWP requirements.

− The instructor evaluates student compliance with RWP and posted instructions. Score

in accordance with key points listed for objectives.

6. Evaluation of area entry and task performance.

When the discussion between the simulated Control Point Technician and the worker is

completed, the worker is given permission to enter the radiologically controlled area.

Establish method of contact between you and student (e.g., tell student how to contact

Radiological Control personnel).

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a. Worker must read and comply with all posted instructions.

− Instructor evaluates performance and scores in accordance with key points listed

for objective.

b. Worker must perform task in accordance with procedures and RWP requirements.

− Instructor evaluates performance and scores in accordance with key points listed

for objective.

c. Student must respond in accordance with procedures to unusual situations.

− Instructor must ask student one of the questions concerning proper response to a

radiation alarm.

d. Student must proceed to frisking station once task is completed.

7. Evaluation of monitoring for contamination

a. Student must perform frisk in accordance with posted instructions and key points listed

for objective.

− Instructor evaluates performance of frisking techniques and scores in accordance

with key points listed for objective.

b. Student must respond in accordance with posted instructions when the count rate

increases and the count rate meter alarms.

− Instructor questions student at some point during the frisk about increased clicks

and count rate meter alarm and score in accordance with key points listed in

lesson plan.

9. Evaluation of post job information recording

Student must record appropriate information on RWP in accordance with key points

listed for objective.

− Instructor evaluates performance and scores in accordance with key points listed for

objective.

10. Review checklist with student

a. Instructor reviews score and performance with student.

b. Ensure both student and instructor sign checklist.

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Sample Checklist Attachment 2

117

ATTACHMENT 2 - Sample Grading Checklist for RW II

Name SSN/EMPLOYEE # COMPANY

Item Evaluated Pt Val Score

Pre-Job Preparation total 20 pts.

Selected proper PCs. 5

Selected and properly wear dosimetry. 5

** Donned PCs properly. 5

Recorded appropriate information. 5

Knowledge Level (See Attachment 5) total 20 pts.

Enter results of knowledge-level evaluation. 20

Radiological Work Practices total 20 pts.

** Minimized exposure while completing task. 4

Minimized Radioactive Waste. 4

Didn't walk thru contamination unnecessarily. 4

Didn’t spread contamination. 4

Chose low exposure route. 4

Emergency Response total 20 pts.

** Responded to alarm.

Exited area. 5

Notified RCT upon exit. 5

Exit Practices total 20 pts.

** Followed undress procedure. 3

Did not contaminate step-off pad. 3

** Did not contaminate self. 7

** Performed whole body survey properly. 5

Surveyed DRD. 1

Read DRD correctly upon exit. 1

100 pts.

I was instructed on the proper performance of all items for which my performance was unsatisfactory. I had the opportunity to ask questions. I understand

that failure of this exercise restricts me from entering the following areas:

Student

Date

Instructor

Date

Note: Comments on reverse.

** Indicates significant mistake. If not identified by student, deduct 21 points.

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Sample Job Scenario Attachment 3

118

ATTACHMENT 3 - Sample Job Scenario

Each facility/site should develop a job scenario and record it on a facility/site-specific RWP.

(Refer to DOE Radiological Control Technical Standard for guidance on the development of

RWPs.) The following is an example of a job scenario and radiological information.

JOB DESCRIPTION: Enter mock-up area and move the box that is located on

the floor in a lower dose rate area to the storage cabinet located in the

area. (A contamination area is located near the Job Site.)

LOCATION: Mock-up area, Building 2.

SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS: RWP not valid for Contamination Area.

Avoid drum in Radiation Area.

RADIATION LEVELS: 80 mR/hr near drum on left side of work area.

25 mR/hr near cabinet and panel on north wall.

5 mR/hr near step-off pad area.

CONTAMINATION LEVELS: 5,000 dpm/100 cm

floor of Contamination

Area.

PROTECTIVE CLOTHING: None.

DOSIMETER(S): TLD and pocket dosimeter (self-reader).

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Sample Survey Map Attachment 4

119

ATTACHMENT 4 - Sample Survey Map

(Insert facility/site-specific sample survey map)

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Sample Questions Attachment 5

120

ATTACHMENT 5 - Sample Questions

STATE PURPOSE OF ENTRY (Ask both questions.)

1. What is your job description?

2. Where is it located?

STATE RADIATION LEVELS IN THE AREA (include units) (Ask two questions.)

1. What is the highest dose rate in the radiological area?

2. Where is the highest dose rate in the radiological area?

3. What is the work area dose rate?

4. What is the lowest dose rate in the radiological area?

5. Where is the lowest dose rate in the radiological area?

STATE SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS LISTED ON RWP (Ask one question.)

1. What are two of the special instructions?

2. What are the areas that you cannot enter?

STATE RESPONSE TO AREA RADIATION ALARM

1. A radiation monitor has alarmed. What should you do?

STATE RESPONSE TO COUNT RATE MONITOR INCREASE AND ALARMS (Ask both

questions.)

1. You hear increased clicks as you survey your ______________. What should you do?

2. The count rate monitor has alarmed. What should you do?

(Part 3 of 3)

Radiological Worker Training

Student’s Guide

Coordinated and Conducted

for

Office of Health, Safety and Security

U.S. Department of Energy

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DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

iii

Table of Contents

Page

MODULE 1: RADIOLOGICAL FUNDAMENTALS................................................................................ 1

MODULE 2: BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS ...................................................................................................14

MODULE 3: RADIATION DOSE LIMITS AND ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROL LEVELS............. 28

MODULE 4: ALARA PROGRAM........................................................................................................... 36

MODULE 5: PERSONNEL MONITORING PROGRAMS.....................................................................44

MODULE 6: RADIOLOGICAL ACCESS CONTROLS AND POSTINGS ........................................ 46

MODULE 7: RADIOLOGICAL EMERGENCIES ..................................................................................60

MODULE 8: HIGH/VERY HIGH RADIATION AREA TRAINING ...................................................... 65

MODULE 9: RADIOACTIVE CONTAMINATION CONTROL ...........................................................69

MODULE 10.1: PRACTICAL FACTORS FOR RADIOLOGICAL WORKER I...................................83

MODULE 10.2: PRACTICAL FACTORS FOR HIGH RADIATION AREAS ......................................89

MODULE 10.3: PRACTICAL FACTORS FOR RADIOLOGICAL WORKER II .................................91

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DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Student’s Guide

Module 1: Radiological Fundamentals

Terminal Objective:

Given various radiological concepts, the participant will be able to define the fundamentals of

radiation, radioactive material, and radioactive contamination in accordance with the approved lesson

materials.

Enabling Objectives:

The participant will be able to select the correct response from a group of responses to verify his/her

ability to:

EO1 Identify the three basic particles of an atom.

EO2 Define radioactive material, radioactivity, radioactive half-life, and radioactive contamination.

EO3 Identify the units used to measure radioactivity and contamination.

EO4 Define ionization and ionizing radiation.

EO5 Distinguish between ionizing radiation and non-ionizing radiation.

EO6 Identify the four basic types of ionizing radiation and the following for each type:

a. Physical characteristics

b. Range

c. Shielding

d. Biological hazard(s)

e. Sources at the site

EO7 Identify the units used to measure radiation.

EO8 Convert rem to millirem and millirem to rem.

Instructional Aids:

1. Student Guide

2. Transparencies

3. Activities (as applicable)

4. Self-check quizzes (as applicable)

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Student’s Guide

Module 1: Radiological Fundamentals

I. MODULE INTRODUCTION

A. Self Introduction

1. Name

2. Phone Number

3. Background

B. Module Overview

Nuclear science is truly a product of the 20th century. This module will discuss several

nuclear science topics at a basic level appropriate for the radiological worker. These concepts

are necessary for the worker to understand the nature of radiation and its potential effect on

health. The topics covered include basic particles of the atom, types of radiation, and the

definition of units used to measure radiation.

C. Objectives Review

D. Introduction

This module introduces the worker to basic radiological fundamentals and terms that are

common in the DOE complex. After learning the fundamentals of radiation, radioactive

material, and radioactive contamination, the worker will build from the basic to the more in-

depth concepts presented in the other modules.

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Student’s Guide

Module 1: Radiological Fundamentals

II. MODULE OUTLINE

A. Atomic Structure

1. The basic unit of matter is the atom. The three basic particles of the atom are protons,

neutrons, and electrons. The central portion of the atom is the nucleus. The nucleus

consists of protons and neutrons. Electrons orbit the nucleus.

a. Protons

1) Protons are located in the nucleus of the atom.

2) Protons have a positive electrical charge.

3) The number of protons in the nucleus determines the element.

b. Neutrons

1) Neutrons are located in the nucleus of the atom.

2) Neutrons have no electrical charge.

3) Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, but can have a

different number of neutrons.

4) Atoms which have the same number of protons but different numbers of

neutrons are called isotopes.

NOTE: Common notation for describing isotopes is to list the atomic symbol for

an element followed by its mass number. The mass number is the sum of

protons and neutrons. For example, tritium has 1 proton and 2 neutrons, and is

denoted as H-3.

5) Isotopes have the same chemical properties; however, the nuclear properties can

be quite different.

c. Electrons

1) Electrons are in orbit around the nucleus of an atom.

2) Electrons have a negative electrical charge.

4) This negative charge is equal in magnitude to the proton’s positive charge.

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Basic Particles

3 Basic

Particles

Location

Charge

Comments

Protons

Nucleus

(positive)

Number of protons determines

the element. If the number of

protons changes, the element

changes.

Neutrons

Nucleus

No Charge

Atoms of the same element have

the same number of protons, but

can have a different number of

neutrons. This is called an

isotope.

Electrons

Orbit

nucleus

- (negative)

This negative charge is equal in

magnitude to the proton’s

positive charge.

2. Stable and unstable atoms

Only certain combinations of neutrons and protons result in stable atoms.

a. If there are too many or too few neutrons for a given number of protons, the nucleus

will not be stable.

b. The unstable atom will try to become stable by giving off excess energy. This

energy is in the form of particles or rays (radiation). These unstable atoms are

known as radioactive atoms.

3. Charge of the atom

The number of electrons and protons determines the overall electrical charge of the atom.

The term “ion” is used to define atoms or groups of atoms that have a net positive or

negative electrical charge.

a. No charge (neutral)

If the number of electrons equals the number of protons, the atom is electrically

neutral. This atom does not have a net electrical charge.

b. Positive charge (+)

If there are more protons than electrons, the atom is positively charged.

c. Negative charge (-)

If there are more electrons than protons, the atom is negatively charged.

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B. Definitions and Units of Measure

1. Radioactive material

Radioactive material is any material containing unstable atoms that emit radiation.

Radiation means ionizing radiation: alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, X-rays,

neutrons, high-speed electrons, high-speed protons, and other particles capable of

producing ions. Radiation, as used in this part, does not include non-ionizing radiation,

such as radio waves or microwaves, or visible, infrared, or ultraviolet light.

2. Radioactivity

Radioactivity is the process of unstable (or radioactive) atoms becoming stable. This is

done by emitting radiation. This process over a period of time is referred to as

radioactive decay. A disintegration is a single atom undergoing radioactive decay.

3. Radioactivity units

Radioactivity is measured in the number of disintegrations radioactive material undergoes

in a certain period of time.

a. Disintegrations per minute (dpm)

b. Disintegrations per second (dps)

c. Curie (Ci)

One curie equals:

• 2,200,000,000,000 disintegrations per minute (2.2x10

dpm), or

• 37,000,000,000 disintegrations per second (3.7x10

dps), or

• 1,000,000 microcuries (1x10

µCi).

4. Radioactive half-life

Radioactive half-life is the time it takes for one half of the radioactive atoms present to

decay.

5. Radioactive contamination

Radioactive contamination is radioactive material that is uncontained and in an unwanted

place. (There are certain places where radioactive material is intended to be.)

Contamination is measured per unit area or volume.

· dpm/100 cm

· µCi/ml.

6. Ionization

Ionization is the process of removing electrons from neutral atoms.

a. Electrons will be removed from an atom if enough energy is supplied. The

remaining atom has a positive (+) charge. The ionized atoms may affect chemical

processes in cells. The ionizations may affect the cell’s ability to function normally.

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b. The positively charged atom and the negatively charged electron are called an “ion

pair.”

c. Ionization should not be confused with radiation. Ions (or ion pairs) produced as a

result of the interaction of radiation with an atom allow the detection of radiation.

7. Ionizing radiation

Ionizing radiation is energy (particles or rays) emitted from radioactive atoms, and some

devices, that can cause ionization. Examples of devices that emit ionizing radiation are

X-ray machines, accelerators, and fluoroscopes.

a. It is important to note that exposure to ionizing radiation, without exposure to

radioactive material, will not result in contamination of the worker.

b. Radiation is a type of energy, and contamination is radioactive material that is

uncontained and in an unwanted place.

8. Non-ionizing radiation

a. Electromagnetic radiation that doesn’t have enough energy to ionize an atom is

called “non-ionizing radiation.”

b. Examples of non-ionizing radiation are radar waves, microwaves, and visible light.

C. The Four Basic Types of Ionizing Radiation

The four basic types of ionizing radiation of concern in the DOE complex are alpha particles,

beta particles, gamma or X rays, and neutrons.

1. Alpha particles

a. Physical characteristics

1) The alpha particle has a large mass and consists of two protons, two neutrons,

and no electrons.

2) It is a highly charged particle (charge of plus two) that is emitted from the

nucleus of an atom.

3) The positive charge causes the alpha particle (+) to strip electrons (-) from

nearby atoms as it passes through the material, thus ionizing these atoms.

b. Range

1) The alpha particle deposits a large amount of energy in a short distance of travel.

2) This large energy deposit limits the penetrating ability of the alpha particle to a

very short distance.

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3) Range in air is about 1-2 inches.

c. Shielding

Most alpha particles are stopped by a few centimeters of air, a sheet of paper, or the

dead layer (outer layer) of skin.

d. Biological hazards

1) Alpha particles are not considered an external radiation hazard. This is because

they are easily stopped by the dead layer of skin.

2) Internally, the source of the alpha radiation is in close contact with body tissue

and can deposit large amounts of energy in a small volume of living body tissue.

e. Sources

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

Table 1-2

Alpha Particles

Physical

Characteristics

· Large mass (2 protons, 2 neutrons, 0 electrons).

· +2 charge.

Range

· Very short (about 1-2 inches in air).

· Deposits large amount of energy in a short

distance of travel.

Shielding

· Few centimeters of air.

· Sheet of paper.

· Dead layer of skin (outer layer).

Biological

Hazards

· No external hazard (dead layer of skin will stop

alpha particles).

· Internally, the source of alpha radiation is in close

contact with body tissue. It can deposit large amounts

of energy in a small amount of body tissue.

Sources

Insert facility/site-specific information.

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2. Beta particles

a. Physical characteristics

1) The beta particle has a small mass and is positively or negatively charged.

Positively charged beta particles are called positrons and have an electrical charge of

plus one. Negatively charged beta particles are high-energy electrons and have an

electrical charge of minus one.

2) A negatively charged beta particle is physically identical to an electron.

3) The beta particle ionizes target atoms due to the force between itself and the

electrons of the atom. Both have a charge of minus one.

b. Range

1) Because of its charge, the beta particle has a limited penetrating ability.

2) The range in air of beta particles depends on the energy of the beta particle. In the

case of tritium (H-3), the range is only an inch; in the case of phosphorous-32 (P-32)

or strontium-90 (Sr-90), the range is 20 feet in air.

c. Shielding

Beta particles are typically shielded by plastic, glass, or safety glasses.

d. Biological hazards

1) If ingested or inhaled, a beta emitter can be an internal hazard when the source of the

beta radiation is in close contact with body tissue and can deposit energy in a small

volume of living body tissue.

2) Externally, beta particles are potentially hazardous to the skin and eyes.

3) Provide facility/site-specific information on the additional risks or concerns from

high-energy beta sources (e.g., P-32, Y-90), as appropriate.

e. Sources

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

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Table 1-3

Beta Particles

Physical

Characteristics

· Small mass.

· -1 charge or + 1 charge.

Range

· Short distance (one inch to 20 feet).

Shielding

· Plastic.

· Glass.

· Safety glasses.

Biological

Hazard

· Internal hazard (this is due to short range).

· Externally, may be hazardous to skin and eyes.

Sources

Insert facility/site-specific information.

3. Gamma rays/X rays

a. Physical characteristics

1) Gamma/X-ray radiation is an electromagnetic wave (electromagnetic radiation) or

photon and has no mass and no electrical charge.

2) Gamma rays are very similar to X rays. The difference between gamma rays and X

rays is that gamma rays originate inside the nucleus and X rays originate in the

electron orbits outside the nucleus.

3) Gamma/X-ray radiation can ionize as a result of direct interactions with orbital

electrons.

b. Range

1) Because gamma/X-ray radiation has no charge and no mass, it has very high

penetrating ability.

2) The range in air is very far. It will easily go several hundred feet.

c. Shielding

Gamma/X-ray radiation is best shielded by very dense materials, such as lead. Water or

concrete, although not as effective as the same thickness as lead, are also commonly

used, especially if the thickness of shielding is not limiting.

d. Biological hazards

Gamma/X-ray radiation can result in radiation exposure to the whole body.

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e. Sources

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

Table 1-4

Gamma Rays/X-Rays

Physical

Characteristics

· No mass.

· No charge.

· Electromagnetic wave or photon.

· Similar (difference is the place of origin).

Range

· Range in air is very far.

· It will easily go several hundred feet.

· Very high penetrating power since it has no

mass and no charge.

Shielding

· Concrete.

· Water.

· Lead.

Biological

Hazard

· Whole body exposure.

· The hazard may be external and/or internal.

This depends on whether the source is

inside or outside the body.

Sources

Insert facility/site-specific information.

4. Neutrons

a. Physical characteristics

1) Neutron radiation consists of neutrons that are ejected from the nucleus.

2) A neutron has mass, but no electrical charge.

3) An interaction can occur as the result of a collision between a neutron and a nucleus.

The nucleus recoils due to the energy imparted by the neutron and ionizes other

atoms. This is called “secondary ionization.”

4) Neutrons may also be absorbed by a nucleus. This is called neutron activation. A

charged particle or gamma ray may be emitted as a result of this interaction. The

emitted radiation can cause ionization in other atoms.

b. Range

1) Because of the lack of a charge, neutrons have a relatively high penetrating ability

and are difficult to stop.

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2) The range in air is very far. Like gamma rays, they can easily travel several hundred

feet in air.

c. Shielding

Neutron radiation is best shielded by materials with a high hydrogen content such as

water, concrete, or plastic.

d. Biological hazards

Neutrons are a whole body hazard due to their high penetrating ability.

e. Sources

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

Table 1-5

Neutrons

Physical

Characteristics

· No charge.

· Has mass.

Range

· Range in air is very far.

· Easily can go several hundred feet.

· High penetrating power due to lack of charge

(difficult to stop).

Shielding

· Water.

· Concrete.

· Plastic (high hydrogen content).

Biological

Hazard

· Whole body exposure.

· The hazard is generally external.

Sources

Insert facility/site-specific information.

D. Units of Measure for Radiation

1. Roentgen (R)

a. Is a unit for measuring external exposure.

b. Defined only for effect on air.

c. Applies only to gamma and X rays.

d. Does not relate biological effects of radiation to the human body.

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e. 1 R (Roentgen) = 1000 milliroentgen (mR).

2. Rad (Radiation absorbed dose)

a. A unit for measuring absorbed dose in any material.

b. Is defined for any material.

c. Applies to all types of radiation.

d. Does not take into account the potential effect that different types of radiation have on the

body.

e. 1 rad = 1000 millirad (mrad).

3. Rem (Roentgen equivalent man)

a. A unit for measuring equivalent dose.

b. Is the most commonly used unit.

c. Pertains to the human body.

d. Equivalent dose takes into account the energy absorbed (dose) and the biological effect

on the body due to the different types of radiation.

The Radiation Weighting Factor (RWF) is used as a multiplier to reflect the

relative amount of biological damage caused by the same amount of energy

deposited in cells by the different types of ionizing radiation. Alpha radiation

ionizes a lot of atoms in a very short distance and, for the same amount of energy

deposited as beta or gamma radiation, is more damaging.

Rem = rad x RWF.

Note: Prior to 2007, when DOE updated its dosimetric models and terminology,

DOE used a Quality Factor (QF). The quality factor was applied to the absorbed

dose at a point in order to take into account the differences in the effects of

different types of radiation. Now, for radiological protection purposes, the

absorbed dose is averaged over an organ or tissue and this absorbed average dose

is weighted for the radiation quality in terms of the radiation weighting factor.

Radiation Weighting Factors:

alpha = 20

beta = 1

gamma/x-ray = 1

neutron = 5-20(depending on the energy)

e. 1 rem = 1,000 millirem (mrem).

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4. Radiation dose and dose rate

a. Radiation dose rate is the dose per time.

b. Example:

1) Radiation dose rate = dose/time.

2) Radiation equivalent dose rate = mrem/hr.

3) Radiation absorbed dose rate = mrad/hr.

Table 1-6

Radiation Units

Roentgen (R)

Rad

(Radiation Absorbed

Dose)

Rem

(Roentgen Equivalent

Man)

Unit for

measuring

exposure.

Unit for measuring

absorbed dose in any

material.

Unit for measuring dose

equivalence (most

commonly used unit).

Defined only for

effect on air.

Defined for any material.

Pertains to human body.

Applies only to

gamma and X-

ray radiation.

Applies to all types of

radiation.

Applies to all types of

radiation.

Does not relate

biological

effects of

radiation to the

human body.

Does not take into

account the potential

effect that different types

of radiation have on the

body.

Takes into account the

energy absorbed (dose)

and the biological effect

on the body due to the

different types of

radiation.

Equal doses of different

types of radiation (as

measured in rad) can

cause different levels of

damage to the body

(measured in rem).

III. SUMMARY

(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

IV. EVALUATION

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(Insert facility/site-specific information.)

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Radiological Worker Training Student’s Guide

Module 2: Biological Effects

Terminal Objective:

Given various radiation doses and sources of radiation, identify natural and manmade sources of

radiation and the biological risks associated with radiation dose in accordance with lesson materials.

Enabling Objectives:

The participant will be able to select the correct response from a group of responses to verify his/her

ability to:

EO1 Identify the major sources of natural background and manmade radiation.

EO2 Identify the average annual dose to the general population from natural background and

manmade sources of radiation.

EO3 State the method by which radiation causes damage to cells.

EO4 Identify the possible effects of radiation on cells.

EO5 Define the terms “acute dose” and “chronic dose.”

EO6 State examples of chronic radiation dose.

EO7 Define the terms “somatic effect” and “heritable effect.”

EO8 State the potential effects associated with prenatal radiation dose.

EO9 Compare the biological risks from chronic radiation doses to health risks workers are

subjected to in industry and daily life.

Instructional Aids:

1. Student Guide

2. Transparencies

3. Activities (as applicable)

4. Self-check quizzes (as applicable)

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Module 2: Biological Effects

I. MODULE INTRODUCTION

A. Self Introduction

1. Name

2. Phone Number

3. Background

B. Module Overview

The fact that ionizing radiation produces biological damage has been known for many years.

We have gained most of our knowledge of these effects since World War II.

In this module, we will discuss the potential for biological effects and risks due to ionizing

radiation and put these potential risks into perspective when compared to other occupations

and daily activities. With this information, it is hoped that employees will develop a healthy

respect for radiation rather than fear or disregard.

C. Objectives Review

D. Introduction

We know more about the biological effects of ionizing radiation than most other

environmental factors. Rather than just being able to base our information on animal studies,

we have a large body of information available regarding exposures to humans. There are four

major groups of people that have been exposed to significant levels of radiation.

The first group includes early radiation workers, such as radiologists. These workers received

large doses of radiation before the biological effects were recognized. Since that time,

standards have been developed to protect workers.

The second group is the more than 250,000 survivors of the atomic bombs dropped at

Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Some of these survivors received doses estimated to be in excess of

50,000 mrem.

The third group includes individuals who have been involved in radiation accidents.

The fourth and largest group of individuals are patients who have undergone radiation therapy

for cancer and other diseases.

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II. MODULE OUTLINE

A. Sources of Radiation

We live in a radioactive world and always have. In fact, the majority of us will be exposed to

more ionizing radiation from natural background radiation than from our jobs.

1. Natural sources

There are several sources of radiation that occur naturally. The radiation emitted from

these sources is identical to the radiation that results from manmade sources.

The four major sources of naturally occurring radiation exposures are:

· Cosmic radiation

· Sources in the earth’s crust, also referred to as terrestrial radiation

· Sources in the human body, also referred to as internal sources

· Radon

a. Cosmic radiation (total average dose ~ 28 mrem/yr)

1) Cosmic radiation comes from the sun and outer space. It consists of positively

charged particles and gamma radiation.

2) At sea level, the average annual cosmic radiation dose is about 26 mrem.

3) At higher elevations, the amount of atmosphere shielding cosmic rays decreases;

therefore, the dose increases.

b. Sources in earth’s crust (terrestrial) (total average dose ~ 28 mrem/yr)

There are natural sources of radiation in the ground (i.e., rocks and soil).

1) Some of the contributors to terrestrial sources are the natural radioactive

elements radium, uranium, and thorium.

2) Many areas have elevated levels of terrestrial radiation due to increased

concentrations of uranium or thorium in the soil.

c. Internal (total average dose ~40 mrem/yr)

1) The food we eat and the water we drink contain trace amounts of natural

radioactive materials.

2) These naturally occurring radioactive materials deposit in our bodies and cause

internal exposure to radiation.

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3) Some naturally occurring radioactive isotopes include Sodium-24 (Na-24),

Carbon-14 (C-14), Argon-41 (Ar-41), and Potassium-40 (K-40). Most of our

internal exposure comes from K-40.

d. Radon (total average dose ~ 200 mrem/yr)

1) Radon comes from the radioactive decay of uranium, which is naturally present

in the soil.

2) Radon is a gas. It can travel through the soil and enter through building

foundation cracks. The greatest concentrations of indoor radon are found in

basements.

3) Radon emits alpha radiation. It presents a hazard only when taken into the body

(e.g., when inhaled).

2. Manmade sources

The difference between manmade sources of radiation and naturally occurring sources is

the origin of the source, i.e., where the radiation is either produced or enhanced by human

activities.

The four top sources of manmade radiation exposures are:

· Tobacco products (cigarettes, cigars etc. although the tobacco is not manmade - the

products are)

· Medical radiation

· Building materials

· Domestic water supply (radon)

a. Tobacco products (average dose ~1300 mrem/yr)

b. Medical radiation sources (total average dose ~ 54 mrem/yr)

1) X rays (total average dose ~ 40mrem/yr)

a) X rays are similar to gamma rays; however, they originate outside the

nucleus.

b) A typical radiation dose from a chest X ray is about 10 mrem.

2) Diagnosis and therapy (total average dose ~14 mrem/yr)

In addition to X rays, radioactive materials and radioactive sources are used in

medicine for diagnosis and therapy.

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c. Building materials (total average dose ~7 mrem/yr)

d. Domestic water supply (radon) (total average dose ~5 mrem/yr)

e. Other minor contributors

Other contributors to dose include consumer products, industrial sources, and

atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons.

4. Average annual dose

The average annual total effective dose to the general population (non-smokers) from

naturally occurring and manmade sources is about 360 mrem.

B. Effects of Radiation on Cells

The human body is made up of many organ systems. Each system is made up of tissues.

Specialized cells make up tissues. Ionizing radiation can potentially affect the normal

function of cells.

1. Biological effects begin with the ionization of atoms

a. The method by which radiation causes damage to human cells is by ionization of

atoms in the cells. It may also cause excitation. Excitation is where the radiation

deposits energy into an atom raising its energy level but not enough energy to eject a

bound electron. Atoms make up the cells that make up the tissues of the body. Any

potential radiation damage begins with damage to atoms.

b. A cell is made up of two principal parts, the body of the cell and the nucleus. The

nucleus is like the brain of the cell.

c. When ionizing radiation hits a cell, it may strike a vital part of the cell like the

nucleus or a less vital part of the cell, like the cytoplasm.

2. Cell sensitivity

Some cells are more sensitive than others to environmental factors such as viruses,

toxins, and ionizing radiation.

a. Actively dividing and non-specialized cells

1) Cells in our bodies that are actively dividing are more sensitive to ionizing

radiation.

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2) Cells that are rapidly dividing include blood-forming cells, the cells that line our

intestinal tract, hair follicles, and cells that form sperm.

b. Less actively dividing and more specialized cells

Cells that divide at a slower rate or are more specialized (such as brain cells or

muscle cells) are not as sensitive to damage by ionizing radiation.

3. Possible effects of radiation on cells

Several things can happen when a cell is exposed to ionizing radiation. The following are

possible effects of radiation on cells.

a. There is no damage

b. Cells are damaged but are able to repair the damage and operate normally

1) The body of most cells is made up primarily of water. When ionizing radiation

hits a cell, it is most likely to interact with the water in the cell. One of the

byproducts of radiation-induced ionization of water is hydrogen peroxide.

Hydrogen peroxide can damage cell atomic structures.

2) Ionizing radiation can also hit the nucleus of the cell. The nucleus contains the

vital parts of the cell, such as chromosomes. The chromosomes determine cell

function. When chromosomes duplicate themselves, the chromosomes transfer

their information to new cells. Radiation may cause a change in the

chromosome that does not affect the cell.

3) Damage to chromosomes and other cell structures can be repaired. In fact, our

bodies repair a very large number of chromosome breaks every day (References

7 and 10).

3. Average annual dose

The average annual total effective dose to the general population from naturally occurring

and manmade sources is about 360 mrem.

c. Cells are damaged and operate abnormally

1) Cell damage may not be repaired or may be incompletely repaired. In that case,

the cell may not be able to function properly.

2) It is possible that a chromosome in the cell nucleus could be damaged but not be

repaired correctly. If the cell continues to reproduce, this is called a mutation

and may result in cancer.

d. Cells die as a result of the damage

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At any given moment, thousands of our cells die and are replaced by normal

functioning cells. However, the radiation damage to a cell may be so extensive that

the cell dies prematurely.

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Module 2: Biological Effects

C. Acute and Chronic Radiation Dose

Potential biological effects depend on how much and how fast a radiation dose is received.

Radiation doses can be grouped into two categories: acute and chronic dose.

1. Acute radiation doses

a. High doses of radiation received in a short period of time are called acute doses. The

body’s cell repair mechanisms are not as effective for damage caused by an acute

dose.

b. Acute doses to the whole body

After an acute dose, damaged cells may be replaced by new cells and the body may

repair itself, although this may take a number of months. Only in extreme cases,

such as with the Chernobyl firefighters (500 rem), would the dose be so high as to

make recovery unlikely.

c. Acute doses to only part of the body

1) X-ray machines

It is possible that radiation exposure may be limited to a part of the body, such as

the hands.

There have been accidents, particularly with X-ray machines, in which

individuals have exposed their fingers to part of the intense radiation beam. In

some of these cases, individuals have received doses of millions

of mrem to their

fingers, and some individuals have lost their finger or fingers. It is important for

individuals who work with X-ray or similar equipment to be trained in the safe

use of this equipment.

2) Radiation therapy

a) Radiation therapy patients receive high doses of radiation in a short period

of time, but generally only to a small portion of the body (not a whole body

dose).

b) The skin and limited tissue of these patients may receive significant doses,

but doses to the region of a tumor are many times higher.

c) Ionizing radiation is used to treat cancer in these patients because cancer

cells are rapidly dividing and therefore sensitive to ionizing radiation. Some

of the side effects of people undergoing radiation therapy are hair loss,

nausea, and tiredness.

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d. Probability of a large acute dose

What is important to understand is that it takes a large acute dose of radiation before

any physical effect is seen. These acute doses have occurred in Hiroshima/Nagasaki,

and in a few radiation accidents, including Chernobyl. The possibility of a

radiological worker receiving a large acute dose of ionizing radiation on the job is

extremely low. Typically, radioactive materials are handled in small quantities that

do not produce a large amount of radiation. Where there is a potential for larger

exposures, many safety features are required.

2. Chronic radiation doses

A chronic radiation dose is typically a small amount of radiation received over a long

period of time. An example of a chronic dose is the dose we receive from natural

background every day of our lives. The body’s cell repair mechanisms are better able to

repair a chronic dose than an acute dose.

a. The body has time to repair damage because a smaller percentage of the cells need

repair at any given time.

b. The body also has time to replace dead or non-functioning cells with new, healthy

cells.

3. Biological effects of radiation exposure

Somatic effects refer to the effects radiation has on the individual receiving the dose.

Genetic effects refer to mutations due to radiation damage to the DNA of a cell. When

this change is in the DNA of parental reproductive cells, it is called a heritable effect.

a. Somatic Effects

Somatic effects can best be described in terms of prompt and delayed effects as

discussed below.

Prompt Effects

Although rare in the nuclear industry, large doses are typically acute

radiation doses representing serious overexposures. The biological effects

of large acute doses are as follows:

DOE-HDBK-1130-2007

Radiological Worker Training Student’s Guide

Module 2: Biological Effects

Table 2-1

Prompt Biological Effects

Dose (rad)

Effect

0-25

None detectable through

symptoms or routine blood tests.

25-100

Changes in blood.

100-300

Nausea, anorexia.

300-600

(450 rem is considered the dose

where 50% fatalities occur within

30 days with no medical help

(lethal dose - LD 50/30)

Diarrhea, hemorrhage, and

possible death

3) Delayed Effects