Children’s Specialist Program

Reference Guide

AmericanAssociationofSnowboardInstructors

This R

assessment based certificate program. Snowsports School trainers and instructors are welcome to refer

to this Guide to enhance their children’s education knowledge base.

At the PSIA/AASI 2013 Fall Conference, the National Children’s Task Force (NCTF) recommended that

the “Study Guide” nomenclature be changed to “Reference Guide”. The NCTF also wanted this Guide to

be updated on an ongoing basis with new or updated information. Revisions will be noted in the “Revision

History” section.

Many people and groups contributed to making this guide a success, including the ASEA National Board

November 2013

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development ......................................................................................... 5

Some Practical Considerations of Piaget’s Stages ............................................................................. 6

Auditory Development ....................................................................................................................... 12

Phases of Motor Skill Acquisition ...................................................................................................... 14

Motor Skill Acquisition: Initial Stage, Elementary Stage & Mature Stage .......................................... 14

1.0 1990

This gui

de is designed to present Snowsports instructors with specific information that can help them to

be more effective instructors for children. The models, theories, and tools presented herein can help the

instructor to better understand what children bring to a lesson, and the specific behaviors and ways that

impact learning at different stages of development.

Understanding the developing child will help you make appropriate decisions regarding what you need to

do to help children progress and develop toward desired outcomes in the mountain environment.

In general

, Piaget’s “stage” theory is a good way to begin to understand children’s cognitive development.

Piaget’s four stages are often used to roughly determine a child’s level of cognitive development. Piaget

proposed that cognitive development occurs in specific stages:

 The Sensorimotor stage, from birth to 2 years, is when the child transitions from strictly

reactive/reflexive to intentional behavior

Developing Child; Harper & Row, 1989).

It should be noted that Piaget’s theory, although influential and useful, has some problems: (1) children

generally develop signs of complex thinking earlier than Piaget suspected; (2) children definitely exhibit

more complex level of thinking in areas in which they are more familiar - than in areas in which they are

less knowledgeable, and (3) children are not consistent in their performance of tasks that allegedly

require the same level of cognitive development. (Bee; The Developing Child; Harper & Row, 1989)

Piaget

pointed to the age of seven (7) as a time for major cognitive changes. Piaget said, “Around this

age, children make the critical transition from pre-operations to more advanced concrete operations.”

Transition: “An increased understanding of classification skills, an understanding of conservation

concepts, and a marked increase in memory abilities.” (Stroufe, Child Development: Its’ Nature and

Course; McGraw-Hill, 1992)

 Uses number games for turns or skills

 Socialite

 Groups & pairs

 Team name

 Special role in group

 Sensitive to others’ feelings

 Thinks about things a lot

 Guided discovery

“Hum

main idea is that at each stage of development the things that cause laughter can be extremely different.

Being a stand-up comic is not a prerequisite for teaching, but it helps to have an understanding of what

Concrete Operations

Formal Operations

Knock-knock, jokes, riddles and toilet talk

Sarcasm, laughing at self

In 1976,

Paul McGhee did a study entitled “Children’s Appreciation of Humor.” The following three jokes

are similar to those used in his study:

error in reasoning that is conquered in middle childhood - conservation and classification. 8 and 9 year

olds have just developed these reasoning skills, which is why children that age find them funny.

Preschoolers, on the other hand, would not understand the punch lines as errors in reasoning.

Joke telling and riddles can be fascinating for children between the ages of 5 and 8. It is evidence of their

cognitive, affective and social development. It’s not too difficult to find out what various kids think is funny.

Listen as they interact, and discuss with your peers.

 Children tend to flex more in the hip than

lower in the body, levering off the binding

backs

 It is difficult for children to work the legs

in opposition; they tend to use the legs

more as a unit

 Children have an easier time controlling

the trunk, and try to use the upper body

before the legs

 Introduce the Learning Segment

 Assess the Student

 Summarize the Learning Segment

Meaningful activities and games develop balance awareness and movements that can help you learn

about each child (or your group). Remember to keep it fun and use plenty of positive reinforcement.

while truly enjoying themselves. The “adventure” phase appeals to the affective aspects of the child’s

development in skiing or riding - as well as providing valuable practice time.

NOTE: The instructor can learn a lot about the child’s learning preferences by simply observing the child

at play during “free time”. The activities that the child chooses to participate in (when given a choice) are

involved with skill improvement and development. Use the CAP model, and give specific examples that

apply to their child.

involvement in winter sports. Parents may have many roles, such as the child’s transportation system,

cheerleaders for their child’s participation in skiing and/or snowboarding.

Parent

be used to address parents’ needs as follows:

o COGNITIVE: Parents need to know that we will help their child with the process of learning

Parent

meet the child’s needs. We should seek and incorporate the parents' help - and let them know how we

Est

ablishing and building rapport with a child’s parents is key to the success of any lesson. Instructors

should run a Pre-Flight Checklist with parents - before taking off with their kids:

o Check the child’s clothing and equipment before the parent leaves

o ASK what the parents would like their child to receive from the lesson. Both the parent’s desires

o LISTEN AND LOOK for clues about the child’s motivations and learning preferences

Let the par

ent(s) and the child know what was accomplished during the lesson. The CAP model can once

again be used a guide:

o Cognitive accomplishments might include: “John followed directions well or solved a problem.”

o Affective accomplishments may be: “Suzy made a new friend or helped other children in the

group.

o Physical accomplishments are: The terrain and conditions that the child skied or rode – and the

o The comfort, challenge, and “Yikes” zones: Let the parent know where their child will be

comfortable and where they will be unsafe

o Provide cues you used to help refine movements. Cues shared with parents need to be

movements that the parent can easily observe and determine if their child is accomplishing the

desired movements.

Somet

based on their expertise and experience - can help the instructor discover how to provide what the child

needs. Although the instructor may feel his/her own expertise is vulnerable in admitting that help is

o “Level 3 at Buffalo Mountain / Level 2 at Honest Peak”: This is the parent who is either unaware

of the true ability of their child - or just has too much pride to be honest. This causes trouble not

only for the entire class, but also for the eventual loss of face when the child must move to a

lower level.

o “Ski/Ride with Big Bro/Sis or Best Buddy”: If a parent insists that their child must be with a friend

or sibling, it is always best to move both children to a lower level. Even then, the two may become

disruptive or be unable to cope with each other in this new environment.

o “My Child is the next Lindsey or Shawn”: Such pressure on a child makes for unstable emotions,

not to mention huge crashes when the expectations are not met.

o “My parents think this is a good idea, but I’m not too sure”: When children do not want to be

there, not only do you have issues assimilating them into the class, but you have unrealistic

expectations on the part of the parent.

o Be Hones

Probl

em solving is a technique that instructors use to help children deal with problems, and develop skills

to solve problems on their own. Problem solving skills enable children to:

inattention only or primarily

when they see a flashing light. It was also observed that they did not slow down in order to improve their

accuracy even after several mistakes.

Obviously, this is relevant to teaching motor skills or sports to kids with the disorder. In addition to

commonly prescribed drug therapies, Barkley recommends parents and teachers be trained “in specific

and more effective methods for managing behavioral problems of children with the disorder.” Barkley also

reports "that children with ADHD might also be helped by a more structured environment."

Ben F

ranklin and Thomas Edison are somewhat different examples of people with ADD. It has been

theorized that both men had the disorder. They have been termed as ADD/ADHD "success stories". Both

RESILIENCY

CREATIVITY

SPONTAINEITY

BOUNDLESS ENERGY

SENSITIVITY TO THE NEEDS OF OTHERS

INQUISITIVE

GREGARIOUS

“Wouldn’t you like to….” Ignores

“Come on, please…” Delays

“You had better….” Makes excuses, argues

“Now you’ve had it!” Tantrums, aggression

“OK OK!” Stops tantrum

 Have rules represent basic expectations

 Keep wording positive+

 Make rules describe behavior that is observable and measurable

 Tie following rules to consequences

 Give choices or options

 Only say what you really mean

How

does using positive or negative reinforcement affect how a child learns?

 Positive reinforcement is said to occur when something a person desires is presented after

 Both positive and negative reinforcement increase behavior - while punishment decreases behavior.

I Reinforce IMMEDIATELY

F Reinforce FREQUENTLY

E Reinforce ENTHUSIASTICALLY

E Reinforce With EYE CONTACT

D DESCRIBE The Behavior

A Use ANTICIPATION

positive reinforcers for every one negative consequence (including negative verbal comments) an

instructor delivers.

If, in the beginning, there is a great deal of inappropriate behavior to which the teacher must attend,

positive reinforcement and recognition of appropriate behavior must be increased accordingly to

maintain the desired three or four positives to each negative. An example of a simple social reinforce:

“Good job, you finished your six turns.”

 Reinforce Enthusiastically: It is easy to simply hand an edible reinforcer to a student; it takes more

congratulatory air conveys that the student has done something important. For most teachers, this

seems artificial at first. However, with practice, enthusiasm makes the difference between a reinforcer

delivered in a drab, uninteresting way - and one that indicates that something important has taken

it is to describe the appropriate behavior that is being reinforced. Instructors often assume that

students know what it is they are doing right - that has resulted in the delivery of reinforcement.

However, this is often not the case. The student may not know why reinforcement is being delivered,

or think that it is being delivered for some behavior other than what the instructor intended to

reinforce. Even if the student does know what behavior is being reinforced, describing it is important.

 Anticipation: Building excitement and anticipation for the earning of a reinforcer can motivate

students to do their very best. The more “hype” the teacher uses, the more excited students become

to earn the reinforcer. Presenting the potential reinforcer in a “mysterious” way will also build

anticipation.

The Gam

e Toolkit is a collection of techniques that we can use as instructors and coaches to build

movement patterns through play. We've all used games to invigorate our lessons. Our students

unconsciously learn very quickly when the learning environment is playful. Their attention span is

increased during fun and playful times. A child's avocation is playing and since learning is their vocation,

merging the two is a highly successful teaching method. The Toolkit provides a framework with which we

can design a blueprint and eventually develop a new game or exercise.

There are literally hundreds of games used by instructors all over the country. They have been shared

and modified for years. So why the Toolkit? Why the need to develop new games?

Games get old. You and/or your students get tired of playing them. There may be no game you know of

The Expl

curiosity, courage, and open-mindedness. It's the part of you that says, “We don't have to do things the

way we've always done it.” This isn't rocket science; it's just the willingness to look at things in a different

way. Hopefully, this is an ongoing process: a lifelong adventure into the unknown.

The Ar

tist makes use of the information compiled during the Explorer's lifetime. The Artist is not

o Connect - What can you combine with your concept? What similarities does it share with [your

product. The Judge is a pessimist, a devil's advocate. The Judge has to look at the game from many

different viewpoints: The students’, the instructor's/coach's, the parents', etc. The Judge walks a tightrope

- always keeping the esteem of the Artist and the welfare of the student in balance.

Wit

h a devil's advocate like the Judge around trying to find a fault with your idea, someone has to stand

up and defend it: The Warrior. The Warrior has the courage to say: "This can work!" This persona of your

creativity has the courage to share it with your students and other educators and coaches. The Warrior,

also, has the courage to take feedback when your idea is tried. It shares this feedback with the other roles

in the model, allowing for growth and change.

new game is worth the effort. And share it with your fellow instructors and coaches.

designed with the student’s other interests in mind (e.g., the multiple intelligences). Below is a list of

As k

ids get older, challenging tasks and appropriate analogies may begin to replace games for fun

learning. Terrain gardens and recreational racing arenas, where the ‘games’ are built-in, are ideal.

 Linked hockey stops with sideslips

 Human slalom

 Read ski (or board) bottoms

 Javelin turns, Figure 8s, One ski turns (“Royal Christies”), [180’s/360’s]

 [Terrain park skiing/riding]

Because children's instructors and coaches teach many students each season, it can become tedious to

use the same games and exercises day in and day out. Although you may already be familiar with the

tools in our Toolkit, I hope that putting each of these tools into a logical framework will help you build new

games and exercises, and build solid movement patterns in your students. Games and exercises will

enhance your lessons and make you a much more effective and FUN instructor/coach.

PSI

A/AASI Children’s Instruction Manual, Second edition. ASEA Education Foundation, Lakewood, CO,

Core Concepts for Snowsports Instructors. PSIA Education Foundation, Lakewood, CO, 2001

AAS

I Snowboard Teaching Handbook. ASEA Education Foundation, Lakewood, CO, 2012.

Ayers

, R., Editor, Professional Ski Instructors of America: Alpine Manual, Professional Ski Instructors of

America Education Foundation., Lakewood, CO, 1996.

Barkley, Russell A., "Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder", Scientific American, September 1998.

Bee, Helen, The Developing Child, Harper and Row, 1989.

Dra

bik, Josef, Children and Sports Training, Stadion Publishing Company, Inc., Island Pond, VT., 1996.

Gri

ffith, B., The Professional Skier: Use Backward Reaching Transfer to promote Quick Learning, PSIA,

Spring 1995, pp.38-39.

Guillone, Laurie, Ski Games: A Fun-Filled Approach to Teaching Nordic and Alpine Skills, Leisure Press,

Chicago, IL, 1990.

Hall, J., ATS: Children's Teaching Handbook. PSIA, Lakewood, CO, 1992.

Hannaford, Carla, Smart Moves, Great Ocean Publishers, Atlanta, GA, 1995.

Mart

in, Wayne F., An Insight to Sports: Featuring Trapshooting and Golf , Sports Vision; 4th edition, April

5, 2002