MODULE 1. SOCIAL POLICY- CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
Module details
Name
Subject Name
Social Work Education
Principle
Investigator
Prof S Parasuraman and Prof Manish Jha
Paper Name
Social Policy
Module
Module 1. Social policy- concepts and definitions
Paper Coordinator
Dr. Sohini Sengupta
Content Writer
Dr. Sohini Sengupta and Ms. Mrinalini Mazumdar
Content Reviewer
Prof Madhushree Sekher
Keywords
Social policy, concepts, history, social protection, social expenditure,
social welfare
Learning
Objectives
This module will help the student to learn about:
1. The key terms and concepts involved in the study of social policy
such as: Social Policy, Social Administration, Social Welfare, The
Welfare State and Social Expenditure.
2. Difference
between the various terms used and the range of
objectives of social policies.
3. The various methods used to meet social needs and the intentions
and its outcomes.
INTRODUCTION
The study of social policy focuses on the support for well-being of citizens provided through
social action, whereby it looks at the ways in which a society promotes the welfare of individuals
and families.It is a multi-disciplinary subject that not only contributes for academic research but
also for empirical studies. It draws from a variety of subjects that includes history, sociology,
political science and geography.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this module is to facilitate the understanding of the main concepts and
definitions used in the study of social policy, which shall help provide a base for further delving
into its theoretical perspectives and frameworks. This module will help the reader understand the
main concepts involved in social policy and will introduce the reader to the subject, while also
introducing a lens that will provide space for critical evaluations at a later stage.
Learning outcomes
At the end of this module, the reader will be equipped to-
• Understand and describe the key terms and concepts involved in the study of social
policy such as: Social Policy, Social Administration, Social Welfare, The Welfare State
and Social Expenditure.
• Differentiate between the various terms used and develop awareness about the range of
objectives that may be contained within social policies.
• Understand the various methods used to meet social needs and the intentions and
outcomes it involves.
Historical Background
Earlier known as Social Administration (now changed to Social Policy), this subject has its roots
in nineteenth century Britain.The change of name from social administration to the study of
social policy was meant to signify a dramatic shift, as it was felt that administration focused to
closely on the analysis of how welfare services operated, whereas the word policy would
encompass a more broad understanding and holistic analysis of the political and ideological
bases of welfare provisions. The history of social policy draws closely from Fabian Politics,
whereby a critical analysis of the existing socio-economic problems in Britain led to the ushering
in of social protection through the state. As new research evidence began to be developed, the
notion that economic markets could meet the welfare needs of all began to be challenged. It was
then realized that state-led policy interventions were necessary to providethe forms of support
and protection which markets were not equipped to handle. In its early days the subject of social
policy was primarily concerned with what William Beveridge, the chief architect of the British
welfare state, had termed the ‘five giants’. In modern terms, these giants were poverty, ill-
health, poor housing, insufficient education and unemployment. However, over the course of
the post-war period, social policy analysts and academicians began to identify gaps in the
Beveridgean welfare state. Some highlighted the persistence of poverty amidst plenty. Others
pointed to ‘hidden’ giants of sexism and racism that the welfare state had failed to address. These
criticisms reflected not only a concern with the weaknesses of government policy but a
broadening of the focus of the academic subject of social policy which began to draw much more
widely on ideas from sociology and political science and adopted a more critical perspective on
the welfare state.
Key concepts and Definitions
Social Policy
The word ‘policy’ denotes the principles that govern action directed towards any given ends, and
can therefore even imply change. Therefore, it can be said that policy is action-oriented.
Social policy, thereby can be seen as a positive instrument of change and is part of a political
process. However, it is important to understand that social policies may not always be associated
with altruism and may not always be positive, because a social policy that may benefit one
group, may actually be detrimental to another group. Hence, a critical lens towards social policy
is pertinent.
Some have defined social policy to be the action taken to ensure that every member of the
society are given a certain minimum standard of living as well as opportunities to uplift
themselves.
Social policy therefore can be said to have three main characteristics-
a) It aims to be beneficent by directing welfare for its citizens.
b) It includes economic as well as non-economic objectives.
c) It involves some level of progressive redistribution in the command over
resources from the rich to the poor.
Social Policy can be divided into three models-
The Residual Welfare Model of Social Policy: This is based on the premise that individual’s
needs can only be fulfilled via two channels; the private market and the family. It is only when
both these systems break down, should social welfare be made available, that too temporarily.
Some justify this by saying that the true objective of the Welfare State is to teach people how to
live without it. The theoretical basis of this model can be traced back to the days of English Poor
Law.
The Industrial Achievement-Performance Model of Social Policy: This model places social
welfare in a significant position, whereby it acts as supplements to the economy. The basis of it
remains that social needs must be met based on merit, work performance and productivity. Its
theoretical base lies in theories that looked at incentives, effort and reward along with the
formation of class loyalties. It is also known as the ‘Handmaiden Model’.
The Institutional Redistributive Model of Social Policy: This model views social welfare as an
important institution that is part of the society, providing Universalist services outside of the
market on the principle of need. It is partly based on the principle of social equality and is meant
to incorporate systems of redistribution in command over resources through time.
Social Expenditure
One of the ways in which the amount of social policy in any society can be measured is to sum
up the money spent on it. This forms two different kinds of expenditure-
• Public Social Expenditure: Money and resources spent directly by governments. Eg:
Cash benefits, pension schemes, unemployment benefits and other such social care
services.
• Private Social Expenditure: Money spent by non-government organizations on benefits
and services for citizens.
Such benefits made available to people to provide support and welfare to people is referred to as
‘social protection’. Examples of social protection schemes include the ICDS (Integrated Child
Development Services) that tackles malnutrition and health issues faced by children below the
age of six years of age and their mothers in India. Similarly, maternity benefits, tax reductions
among others also fall under this category.
Social Welfare
Arrangements that are made to tackle social issues, to meet the needs of individuals as well as
groups in a society is known as social welfare. While it may refer to increased access to
economic benefits in order to aid well-being, it also includes other parameters such as promoting
happiness and absence of threat and measures taken to facilitate such forms of welfare.There are
various sources that aid the welfare of an individual and have a direct effect on the quality of
their lives. These sources include links to the market, to the government as well as the family and
community that surrounds people. In the absence of any of these sources, the other steps in.
For instance, families provide for children from the time of their birth, however, for an orphaned
child, the community or the state may have to step in by providing assistance or social
services.Hence, it can be said that welfare is the product of all the three sources, which is often
referred to as the mixed economy of welfare.
The State and the Mixed Economy of Welfare
It is a general perception that state is the dominant institution that is responsible for the provision
of welfare services, however, today it no longer holds true. This is because welfare services are
funded through and often provided by a variety of different means which involves multiple
sectors such as the commercial sector, public, not-for-profit as well as informal sectors.
If one examines the role of the state in the provision of welfare services, various arguments can
be made. Some say that the state plays a huge role through its various roles in functions and
because of this increased role, it is now incapable of undertaking all of these roles and functions
adequately. Therefore, making it pertinent to involve various other external organizations in
order to facilitate service delivery and administration. However, while others argue that a large
state apparatus proves to be inefficient as it involves bureaucracy and red-tapism, which often
reduces the freedom and choice of the people, some also believe that that the role of the state in
social policy needs to be further expanded so as to reduce inequalities.
While there maybe various views, it is certain that the role of the state is definitely complex.
Social Need
This is primarily the reason why social welfare institutions are created, so that social needs may
be addressed. However, it is important to break down and understand what is meant by need and
delve into the various types of needs in order to understand what constitutes a social need and
how it is different from an individual need.
There are various kinds of needs and they may be divided into categories-
Normative need: This kind of need is based on set norms. These norms/standards are often
decided by experts. A ‘desirable’ standard is laid down and is compared with the standard that
actually exists – if an individual or group falls short of the desirable standard then they are
identified as being in need. A problem that arises with the normative definition of need is that
there may be very different and possibly even conflicting standards laid down by different
experts. Normative standards may change in time, both as a result of increasing knowledge and
avenues as well as the changing values of society.
Comparative need: This form of need arises through comparison with others who are not in need.
It is based on the principle that if there are people with similar characteristics not receiving a
service, then they are in need. While it may be seen as an attempt to standardize provision,
provision may not always correspond with need. The problem arises because the statement that
‘X’ is in need in comparison with ‘Y’ does not necessarily imply that ‘Y’ is still not in need.
Felt need: These needs are the ones that people feel and therefore become obvious. For example,
need for care (in various forms) when we feel ill or an accident. Here need is equated with want.
It is limited by the perceptions of the individual which would depend upon the awareness of the
available services, as well as a reluctance in many situations to confess a loss of independence.
On the other hand, it could also be inflated by those who ask for help without ‘really needing it’.
Expressed need: This sort of need is one which people claim they have and is outwardly
expressed or is revealed. It is basically a felt need turned into action. While one does not demand
a service unless they feel a need, it is also common for afelt need not to be expressed through
demand.
Once, we have understood the various kinds of needs, it is also important to distinguish it from
social needs. A social need arises out of shared conditions of life amongst social groups and
communities. These shared conditions refers to problems that maybe collectively faced as well as
the system, social structures and processes that are required to rectify them.
Welfare State
The word welfare commonly refers to ‘well-being’ and it can also refer to services which are
made available to people to protect them in various conditions. Here, it is important to note that
though welfare is often associated with needs, in order to achieve well-being, people must have
the power of choice so that they may choose their goals and ambitions.
Welfare states are those societies in which a large part of the welfare is paid for and provided by
the government. It is based on the principles of equality of opportunity, equitable distribution of
wealth, and public responsibility for those unable to avail themselves of the
minimal provisions for a good life.
It involves transfer of funds from the state towards services to benefit individuals and it maybe in
the form of healthcare, education related schemes, old age pension etc. The welfare state should
also be distinguished from other forms of help notably the private sector, which provides welfare
through insurance schemes to its subscribers, or occasionally through charitable institutions to
others. It should also be distinguished from the voluntary sector, where it is provided by large
organizations, often with the help of companies at a formal level, and at an informal and less
organized level, help is given due to the charitable notions of individuals.
There are various ideologies that influence welfare policies in different countries. Gosta Esping-
Anderson categorized welfare states into three kinds in his book titled ‘The three Worlds of
Welfare Capitalism’.
Liberal Welfare States: This refers to benefits that cater to low-income state dependents, which
usually consists of the working class. In this case, the entitlement rules are very strict in order to
reduce the chances of people opting for welfare instead of work. However, the benefits are quite
large. Examples of liberal welfare states include The United States of America, Canada and
Australia.
Conservative Welfare States: There is a strong emphasis on upholding status differences and
hence, social insurance funds were set up to reward work performance. Since it is rooted in
traditions, it often excludes a group/section of people to uphold the traditional structures. For
instance, social insurance excludes non-working wives, thereby, encouraging motherhood.
Examples of such countries include Germany, France and other European countries.
Social Democratic Welfare states: It is based on the principle of universalism, whereby access to
benefits and services are based on citizenship. It is meant to promote equality at the highest
standard, whereby the poor are guaranteed the same quality of rights enjoyed by the wealthy.
Hence, it incorporates people of all strata being offered similar benefits. Examples include
Sweden and Scandinavian countries.
There also exists a large body of work that argues against the existence of welfare states as it is
seen to hamper the prospects of economic growth. It is believed that redistribution has a limited
ability to uplift the poor but it is the growth of the economy that has the potential to lift people
out of poverty. Similarly, it is also argued that the existence of welfare states will drive people to
choose welfare dependency over work, thus decreasing the active work force or have a negative
impact on their motivation to work.
Social Protection
Social Protection concerns itself with making provisions for the disadvantaged in order to protect
them. It may include women, children, old people, and people living with disabilities, historically
marginalized groups and many more.
Social protection is commonly understood as “all public and private initiatives that provide
income or consumption transfers to the poor, protect the vulnerable against livelihood risks and
enhance the social status and rights of the marginalized; with the overall objective of reducing
the economic and social vulnerability of poor, vulnerable and marginalized groups” (Devereux
& Sabates-Wheeler, 2004: i). Social protection is usually provided by the state and it is based on
the ‘state-citizen’ contract, in which states and citizens are believed to have rights and
responsibilities towards each other. However, the objectives of social protection might vary
whereby, it maybe meant for empowering women and girls, improving livelihoods or even used
as a response to a sudden event or a shock. While the short term goal of social protection is to act
as a temporary safety net to mitigate the shock, to smoothen consumption patterns, the long term
goal is to enable people to permanently alleviate themselves from poverty.
The functions of social protection maybe divided into four types-
• Protective: which provides relief from deprivation (example: pensions, income benefits)
• Preventive: which averts deprivation (such as insurance schemes)
• Promotive: which is meant to enhance income as well as capabilities (for example,
inputs)
• Transformative: meant to promote social equity and inclusion and rights (example: labour
laws)
