Faith: A New Component within Differentiated Instruction

Christian Perspectives in Education Christian Perspectives in Education

Send out your light and your truth! Let them guide me. Psalm 43:3 Send out your light and your truth! Let them guide me. Psalm 43:3

Volume 6

Issue 1

Christian Perspectives in Education,

Winter 2013

Article 2

December 2013

Faith: A New Component within Differentiated Instruction Faith: A New Component within Differentiated Instruction

Maude S. Yacapsin

Messiah College

, [email protected]

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Running head: DIFFERENTIATION BY FAITH 3

Introduction

In the discipline of Education, Differentiated Instruction (DI) is a strategy teachers use to

improve the learning experiences for students in today’s culturally and academically diverse

classrooms. In higher education settings, including those with a Christian emphasis, there has

been a focus on widening participation of people from diverse cultural and socio-economic

backgrounds (David, 2009). Research has shown that educational, purposeful interaction

between diverse groups of college students is related to personal growth and development,

vocational preparation, intellectual development and diversity competence regardless of

academic, cultural or religious affiliation (Hu & Kuh, 2003). Scholars such as Astin (1993)

suggest that affective learning is most influenced by classroom interactions which flourish in a

strong community (or Koinonia) environment. The current study describes DI as a scientifically-

researched teaching strategy that is based on prevalent, psycho-educational foundations. In

addition, it highlights community building constructs evident in religious authorship. The study

includes data gleaned from an informal survey utilized to demonstrate how DI promotes a

participatory learning environment among students from varying religious backgrounds in the

Christian college classroom.

Defining Differentiated Instruction

DI is a scientifically researched-based method of teaching that has proven successes in

pre-kindergarten to twelfth-grade classrooms since 1993 (Forsten, 2004; Gregory, 2005;

Tomlinson, 2005). Teachers tailor instruction to meet student needs by using four instructional

elements to account for variances in student learning and student affect. These elements are

Content, Process, Product and Learning environment. DI methodology ensures that the content a

student is exposed to, the process by which he/she learns it, how the student demonstrates what

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he/she has learned, and how conducive the student perceives the classroom environment, is

matched with that student’s readiness level, interests and preferred mode of learning (Tomlinson,

2004). To illustrate, DI is comprised of two overarching themes: Instructional elements and

Student characteristics. Each is further delineated into subcategories. The subcategories for

Instructional elements are Content, Process, Product and Learning environment. The

subcategories for student characteristics are Readiness, Interest and Learning profile. Readiness,

defined as a point of required mastery where a child cannot successfully function by her/himself,

but can succeed with scaffolding or support; Interest, defined as a psychological state of

complete involvement in an activities to the degree that time and fatigue fade; Learning Profile,

defined as a student's preferred mode of learning affected by a number of factors, including

learning style, intelligence, preference, gender and culture (Tomlinson, 2004). Figure 1 helps

summarize the definitions and examples of DI and the DI framework with faith proposed as a

fourth student characteristic:

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Figure 1. The Differentiated Instruction (DI) framework with faith included as a fourth student characteristic. The figure includes DI categories and subcategories in

addition to examples that illustrate potential or existing manifestations in higher education environments.

Adapted from Tomlinson, C. A. (2005). Traveling the road to differentiation in staff development. National Staff Development Council, 26(4), 8-12.

Differentiated Instruction

categories

Readiness

Interest

Learning

profile

Faith

Content

Process

Product

Learning

environment

Definitions

Point of

required

mastery where

a student

cannot

successfully

function by

her/himself,

but can

succeed with

scaffolding or

support

Psychological

state of

complete

involvement in

an activity to

the degree that

time and

fatigue fade

Factors that

enhance or

deter learning

for individual

students

Practice or

tradition of

worshipping,

following and

believing in

Jesus

Curriculum

and

information to

which a

student is

exposed

Manner by

which a

student

constructs or

makes sense of

ideas

Manner by

which a

student is able

or asked to

demonstrate

learning

Setting where

learning takes

place

Examples

GPA

Formative

assessments

Prerequisite

coursework

Curriculum

introduction

Survey

Pretest

Purposeful

interactions

with Jesus,

peers, teacher,

text

Time on task

Degree-

seeking

experiences to

discipline

Career

SES

Race

Linguistic

code

Intelligence

Gender

Culture

Public prayer

Inspirational

reading

Silent devotion

Biblical

Studies

Philosophy

Math

Sciences

Business

Languages

Nursing

Education

Art

Responsive

teaching

Grouping

Presentation

method

Flipped

classroom

Instructional

strategy

Service

opportunities

Projects

Summative

assessments

Reports

Tests

Quizzes

Performances

Chapel

Classroom

Online

Campus

community

Off-campus

field settings

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Historical, as well as recent research, in instructional strategy and educational environment

suggests that when teachers and professors demonstrate a sincere investment in student success,

students are more apt to maintain interest in content and vocation. The relationship of the

teacher to a student in the presence of content is at the crux of efforts to improve performance

(Elmore, 1996; Kuh, 2001; Weimer, 2013). By design, DI promotes teacher investment in

student learning. However, DI design, until now, has proposed no formal declaration that

recognizes a students’ faith as a means by which college professors can further cultivate an

interest for and demonstrate an investment in student learning and success. This paper explores

faith as a fourth Student characteristic, adding to student Readiness, Interest and Learning

profile. For the purpose of this report, faith is defined as belief in Jesus Christ as Savior. Faith

tradition or faith practice is the manner by which students choose to worship Jesus, either by

silent devotion, public prayer or an inspirational reading.

Differentiation in the College Classroom

At the college level, DI is recognized in teacher education programs as a manner by which

“prospective teachers may be encouraged to create progressive learning environments that resist

labels, focus on substance vs. form, and recognize the importance of both public accountability

and personal responsibility to individual students” (Sherman, 2009, p. 50). “Differentiation can

be the crucible for change encouraging pre-service and in-service teachers to construct best

practice for responding to what Harvard University’s Hans Hofmann calls “the tremendous

plasticity and potential built in to the genes of each individual” (Shaw, 2003; Gould et al. 2010,

pp. 3-4). In short, DI is an instructional strategy many Christian higher educators can utilize to

reach and teach college students with diverse academic, social, cultural and now, faith-based

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practices. The information in this paper seeks to provide the reader with a description and

rationale as to how faith may be added to Readiness, Interest and Learning Profile as a fourth

student characteristic within the framework of DI.

Faith Ideals Common with Differentiation

Christian theology purports that Jesus is relevant in our lives and in the lives of others with

whom we interact. It requires “abiding and deep-rooted joy are anchored in Christ, and in

loving, humble relations with each other” (Brensinger, 2000, p. 61). It calls for us to transcend

our immediate desires to those that will allow us to share in the comforts of the Lord through

caring for others.

Christian faith practices vary across denominations. Christian practices have commonalities

as well. For example, Baptist, Brethren in Christ, Lutheran, Catholic, Orthodox and Wesleyan

traditions aspire to the impact Christ has on one’s life. Jesus’ influences and teachings are not

exclusive, but simple and applicable to “everyone, everywhere, in every time in history,

regardless of age, color or state of life” (Kelly, 2010, p. 47). Amidst the countless religions and

religious traditions delineating Christianity, ideals highlighted in the book Gracious Christianity

(2006) have been lauded as a theological conversation approaching “the beliefs that matter most

to people who are called to love God and their neighbors” (Okholm, as cited in Jacobsen &

Sawatsky, 2006). Its definition is broadened to include describing an ability of those who

envelope this tradition, to serve as conduits of God’s love and to serve as messengers of His love

to others (Jacobsen & Sawatsky, 2006). The Bible encourages us as Christians, to accept others

as Christ did; to accept with gratitude those oppressed and unfortunate; to understand that in His

eyes, there are no “undesirables” (Yancey, 2005, p. 155). DI encourages us to embrace

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individual differences (e.g., disability, culture, learning style) to facilitate learning for all

students.

As Christian educators and scholars at faith-based institutions, we have the distinct

responsibility to not only impart subject-specific knowledge upon our students, but to deepen and

enrich their faith through, or at times exclusive of, the practices and strategies we implement in

our classes. We are called to demonstrate care and our selfless commitment to our students

along their journey of scholarship and faith integration. We may choose to begin class with

devotion, end class with prayer, or call attention to a faith practice as a result of teaching subject

matter within our area of expertise. As faculty we imbricate faith and scholarship.

Understanding this is essential to our mission as faith messengers for students. But at times, this

can be difficult for reasons such as varying faith denominations present within Christian

institutions, the necessity to teach content in a set time frame or unique learning environment

(i.e., semester, intensive, online, digital) and academic and cultural diversity in higher education

is on the rise (Gurin, Dey, Hurtado & Gurin, 2002). One instructional method that is

implemented to help understand then imbricate these varying denominations, content

expectations, and diversity in higher education through instructional delivery is DI.

The Differentiated Instruction Framework Now

DI is comprised of two overarching themes: Instructional elements and Student

characteristics. Each is further delineated into subcategories. The subcategories for Instructional

elements are Content, Process, Product and Learning environment. The subcategories for

student characteristics are Readiness, Interest and Learning profile. In theory, Differentiated

Instruction is instruction that seeks to maximize student growth by recognizing that students

have different ways of learning, different interests and different ways of responding to

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instruction. It stems from beliefs about differences among learners and individual learning

processes (Anderson, 2007). In practice, it involves offering several different learning

experiences in response to these varied needs. As noted earlier, educators modify learning

activities and materials in three ways: by difficulty, so as to challenge students at different

readiness levels; by topic, in response to students' interests; and by student learning profile in

response to a students preferred way of learning or expressing her or himself (Ravitch, 2007). It

involves providing all students with varying instructional approaches that allows them to acquire

instructional elements as content, to process, construct, or make sense of ideas and to be

provided with teaching materials relevant to their characteristics which are defined as Readiness,

Interest and Learning profile effectively, regardless of differences in ability.

DI consists of a systematic approach to planning curriculum and instruction giving

consideration to the dual goals of honoring each student learning needs and maximizing each

students learning capacity (Tomlinson & Doubet, 2005). It requires educators focus on the

“nature of the student and the essential meaning of the curriculum” (Tomlinson & Doubet, 2005,

p. 6). An educator’s consideration for the nature of the students’ learning preference conveys

then, a message of caring hence demonstrating her/his commitment to student success.

Furthermore, it shows that the professor has a vested interest in students and wants to understand

what they want to know and how they want to learn. This expression of caring contributes to the

creation of what the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (trans. 1978) referred to as the Zone of

Proximal Development or ZPD. This zone is a theoretical, psychological space among

participants in which students collaborate with others (e.g., educators, peers) to solve complex

problems, gradually internalizing increasingly sophisticated psychological functions (Holzman,

1997).

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Differentiating instructional elements based on student characteristics increases the

likelihood that students will learn as much as possible as efficiently as possible and also allows

the educator to recognize individual differences (Sprenger, 2003). This promotes successful

establishment and maintenance of Vygotsky’s ZPD by contributing to the caring relationship

students seek and establish with professors (Goldstein, 1999; Kanevsky & Keighley 2003;

Levykh, 2008; Fredricks, Alfeld & Eccles, 2010). The following section will provide the reader

with examples of how differentiation can support the professors role in ZPD as well as establish

a student’s faith practice as a fourth dimension to the Student characteristics category of DI.

Addressing the Student Characteristic Subcategories Using DI

The manner by which a professor can attend to a student Readiness to learn is illustrated

when the professor has an understanding of the academic background and academic ability of the

student or students in question. For example, if a professor of religious theory is teaching a

freshman class about consubstantiation, he or she might first establish that the students in the

class have either ever been exposed to the term or already fully understand what the term means.

Perhaps the professor establishes this by an informal survey or pretest to ascertain the academic

level at which the student is functioning. The survey or pretest data serves as a means by which

the professor can tailor instruction for the students who first need to comprehend what the term

means in order to proceed with and successfully interact with forthcoming content.

The element of Interest is fostered when a professor integrates student choice into her or his

curriculum. This is illustrated, for example, in a service learning course where students are able

to choose an organization for which they would have a vocational or faith-related interest in

providing unconditional service. It may also be illustrated if the professor allows students to

choose the manner by which they prefer to demonstrate learning course concept. For example, if

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a course requirement is to demonstrate understanding of the writings of Henri Nouwen, the

professor may require that the student either write a synthesis paper about the subject as one

option or create a presentation about the subject as another option.

Learning profile takes into consideration the modality by which a student maximizes her or

his potential to make sense of and process information. For example, most professors are

acquainted with visual, auditory and tactile modalities, with the understanding that some students

learn by viewing information, others by listening to information and yet others by active, hands-

on involvement. Modality instruction was expanded upon in the last few decades by scholars

such as Howard Gardner with Multiple Intelligence Theory, Spencer Kagan with Cooperative

Learning Theory and Marzano’s The Art and Science of Teaching. All these theories and theorist

have given much consideration to the uniqueness of the individual and his or her specific

learning profile. Carol Tomlinson’s Differentiated Instruction Theory encompasses many

aspects of each theory presented here, but gives consideration to how each can be efficiently

integrated and implemented to reach all learners in the classroom without having to individualize

instruction for every student during every class period. The addition of Faith as a fourth student

characteristic permits us as Christian educators to call upon our own ideals to interact positively

with those created in the image and likeness of Christ. Our faith-scholarship takes shape in the

practice of Differentiating Instruction for students in our classes. We are called to recognize that

their unique characteristics (i.e., academic, social, cultural and religious) are gifts bestowed upon

them by Christ in His image and likeness. As the relationship of Christian ideals to

Differentiated Instruction is gradually evidenced in this written account, information reported in

the following section supports its use for Christian educators.

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Implementing Differentiated Instruction as a Christian Practice

The Jacobsen’s (2006) challenge Christian scholars to “use disciplinary knowledge as a fixed

point of reference to critique our own Christian faith” (p. 154). By critique, one might assume

that within the content of their writings, the authors ask us to develop our understanding of our

faith practices as they apply to our interactions with Christ and how these interactions with

Christ influence our curriculum and our teaching.

The Christian relationship with Christ, although beneath the surface is complex, is simplified

by the phrase “follow Jesus.” So when we as scholars are asked to follow Jesus when we teach,

what really are we asked to do? Are we asked to disseminate information to students? Are we

asked to impinge our own faith practices about Christ onto our students? Or are we asked by

Christ to accept all students as stewards of the Lord’s grace regardless of the diverse

backgrounds from which they come? If we proclaim to be gracious and caring followers of

Christ, we are cognizant of disseminating information and of our faith traditions, but embody the

notion that students (and others) are stewards of God’s grace and worthy of our individualized

attention. Students do not only come to us with diverse backgrounds, but with God-given gifts

and talents that need to be nurtured that for we as Christian scholars, possess unique

qualifications.

Differentiated Instruction is to education as graciousness in our Christianity is to religion; a

fructuous and sustainable analogy for the Christian higher education classroom. When DI is

utilized, faith concepts become more self-evident. Recall that the Bible encourages us, as

Christians, to accept others as Christ did; to accept with gratitude those oppressed and

unfortunate; to understand that in His eyes, there are no “undesirables” (Yancey, 2005, p. 155).

In addition, teachers may be encouraged to create progressive learning environments that “resist

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labels, focus on substance vs. form and recognize the importance of both public accountability

and personal responsibility to individual students” (Sherman, 2009, p. 50). When drawing

meaning from both quotes, one might interpret that when we Differentiate Instruction for our

students, we are in a sense acknowledging that they are unique individuals created by Christ in

His image and likeness. We are accepting diversity as Christ did, accepting with gratitude those

who may be less fortunate and are creating learning environments that relinquish such

classifications. When we adhere to the elements that comprise DI, Readiness, Interest, Learning

Profile and now, Faith, we make a conscious connection and concerted effort to follow Jesus in

our scholarship and in our teaching.

This commitment to our students generalizes across all populations when we embrace DI and

faith as integrated themes and motivational contexts of caring. The process of inculcating both

practices within our teaching allows us to extend our thinking, to reflect on our current practices

and to envision how faith-scholarship shapes our own relationship with Christ to students with

disabilities, to students of other countries and to students of other religions. As supported in

research, encouraging students to grasp an understanding of their intrinsic value, their connection

to others, and their ability to impact humankind through their actions could have a dramatic

impact on the world they inhabit (Chickering, Dalton, & Stamm, 2006). Through such

engagement, students can understand the power of forgiveness and their ability to affect their

own situation through peaceful equanimity (Astin & Keen, 2006). In order to extend this

research and assess and communicate the rationale and purpose for Faith differentiation in our

class, an informal survey was created then distributed to students. The following section

describes its use and results.

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A Class Exercise in Faith Differentiation: An Informal Survey

Educators are schooled in DI and DI implementation typically beginning in their second year

of baccalaureate education. At the end of a specialized degree program in education, most

intuitions have equipped their graduates with both theory and practice in Differentiating

Instruction; theory through text and readings, practice through field experiences and student

teaching. Pre-service teachers are trained to differentiate content, process and product through

capitalizing on student learning ability, profile and interest despite their area of expertise (i.e.,

Math, Science, English, Music).

Using Differentiation to uncover student faith practices. Of the many combinations

by which DI is implemented, Differentiating Instruction by a proposed fourth Student

characteristic, Faith, was chosen for this informal study. As stated early, Christianity and

faith practices vary across denominations. Given this, it is important for faculty to create a

community of learning early on. In order for ZPD to be facilitated within this community, a

clear understanding of how the students wanted to learn while interacting with Christ needed

to be established. The information regarding student faith practices was gathered via an

informal, in-class survey (see Appendix). Note that the purpose of this survey was not to

seek information regarding gender, culture or disability. Its intention, however, was twofold:

to gather preliminary information indicating student preferences (e.g., public prayer, silent

devotion, inspirational reading) for practicing Faith in class and to demonstrate how

Differentiated Instruction is employed in a classroom thus giving a nod to active learning.

There were 21 students who participated in the survey and did so voluntarily. Twenty of

the students were college sophomores. One of the students was a college senior. Two of the

students were classified as non-traditional. All of the students were enrolled in a Teacher

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Certification Program in central, PA. By observation, there were five males and 16 females

ranging in age from approximately 20 years to 44 years.

The survey was distributed as part of the “Creating a Community of Learners” week in an

introductory teacher preparation class at the college. The students were asked to participate

in an informal survey to record the manner by which they were interested in worshipping

Christ while in class. The survey asked one question to which the students were to choose

one answer but also, they were given the opportunity to record other questions or add

comments about the survey or class at the end of the form (see Appendix). After a brief

introduction to and discussion about the survey, the survey was distributed.

The survey was informal and distributed to a convenience sample. From the 21 (N = 21)

students who completed the survey, seven students indicated that they would prefer public

prayer as a means by which they would feel comfortable worshiping Christ in class, seven

chose silent devotion, and seven chose inspirational reading. Four of the students included

“second choices” but also wrote they would do anything so as to recognize Christ’s presence

in each person they encountered while in the class or elsewhere (Brensinger, 2000). Many of

the comments recorded at the bottom of the surveys shared thoughts of gratitude for the

professor’s attention to the topic and to the mechanism by which the professor used to

demonstrate investment in and care for students.

How student input was realized. Throughout the remainder of the semester, each week

a student was named to share a preferred faith practice. For those choosing public prayer, the

students selected or simply recited a prayer before class began. For those choosing silent

devotion, they engaged in listening to others and reflected on the devotion for the week. For

those choosing inspirational reading, students read a quote that inspired them to live a Christ-

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filled life. The quote did not necessarily have to be biblical, but it did have to have deep

meaning for them and be adequately conveyed as such to their peers. The class became the

venue for introducing how differences in children impact their ability to learn.

Differentiating Instruction is one of the teaching strategies covered in this introductory

teaching practices course. Teaching this strategy via active learning to the college students

helped them understand that children too, will come with varying degrees of academic

preparation, parental support, affective mannerisms and motivation or ability to learn and

faith practices while simultaneously learning to build a better relationship with Jesus through

reflection in class (Tomlinson et al. 2004; Jacobsen & Jacobsen, 2006). This exercise also

helped me learn how my students chose to interact with Christ, not realizing the level to

which my faith, the insights of different Christian denominations and practices, and my

scholarship, had made on the students.

Resulting Implications for Faith Differentiation

As a scholar of Education, I personally have had over 20 years of experience working with

DI in both pre-kindergarten to twelfth-grade and higher education classes. Having heard the

followers of faiths other than mine speak about their relationship with God, has formed the

foundation on which I base my relationships with others; neighbors, friends, family, students and

colleagues alike. Koinonia or fellowship, is a hallmark of the Christian experience and as a

result, a cornerstone of Christian educational philosophy (Pazmino, 1997). Throughout this

paper the reader was exposed to perspectives on Christian practices as well as to current and

research-based practices in Education. A scholar might conclude that Faith may be evidenced as

a motivational context for and a fourth Student characteristic within the framework of

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Differentiated Instruction. Albeit through evidence that is supported, the responsibility herein

lies with the beholder of this newfound revelation.

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Running head: DIFFERENTIATION BY FAITH 18

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Yacapsin: FAITH DIFFERENTIATION

Published by Scholars Crossing, 2013

Running head: DIFFERENTIATION BY FAITH 19

Appendix

Practicing Faith Traditions in Class

XXXX 111

Please tell me how you would like to express your devotion to Christ in our class. (Check

one option, add additional information if you feel comfortable doing so).

“ Public prayer

“ Silent devotion

“ Inspirational reading

“ Other

Comments or questions:

___________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

Christian Perspectives in Education, Vol. 6, Iss. 1 [2013], Art. 2

https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/cpe/vol6/iss1/2