THE EFFECT OF VISUAL ART ON MUSIC LISTENING

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University of Kentucky Doctoral Dissertations Graduate School

2003

THE EFFECT OF VISUAL ART ON MUSIC LISTENING THE EFFECT OF VISUAL ART ON MUSIC LISTENING

Jennifer Sue Shank

University of Kentucky

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ABSTRACT OF DISSERTATION

Jennifer Sue Shank

The Graduate School

University of Kentucky

2003

THE EFFECT OF VISUAL ART ON MUSIC LISTENING

_____________________________

ABSTRACT OF DISSERTATION

_____________________________

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the

Requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

in the College of Fine Arts

at The University of Kentucky

Jennifer Sue Shank

Lexington, Kentucky

Director: Dr. Cecilia Wang, Associate Professor of Music

Lexington, Kentucky

2003

ABSTRACT OF DISSERTATION

THE EFFECT OF VISUAL ART ON MUSIC LISTENING

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of visual stimuli on music

listening skills in pre-service elementary teachers. “Visual Stimuli” in this study refers to

the presentation of arts elements in selected visually projected images of paintings.

Music listening skills are defined as those skills needed to identify and interpret musical

excerpts. A Pretest-Posttest Control-group Design was used in this study.

Subjects were pre-service elementary general educators enrolled in a large

southern university (N=93). Students from intact classes were randomly placed into

either the experimental group or the control group. The treatment consisted of six music

listening lessons over a two-week period with each group receiving the identical teaching

protocol with the exception of the use of paintings with the experimental group.

Listening instruction emphasized the identification of melodic contour, instrumentation,

texture, rhythm and expressive elements of the compositions.

The Teacher Music Listening Skills Test (TMLST) was constructed by the

investigator and administered before and after the treatment. The TMLST was designed

to assess music listening skills in adult non-musicians.

Results indicate that the group receiving visual stimuli in the form of paintings

scored significantly higher on listening skills (p<.01) than the control group which

received no visual stimuli in the form of visually projected images of paintings. There

was an instruction effect on both preference and familiarity of the musical pieces for both

the control group and the experimental group.

KEY WORDS: VISUAL STIMULI, MUSIC LISTENING SKILLS, PAINTINGS, NON-

MUSICIANS, INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC, GESTALT

Jennifer S. Shank

July, 20 2003

THE EFFECT OF VISUAL ART ON MUSIC LISTENING

Jennifer Sue Shank

Dr. Cecilia C. Wang

Director of Dissertation

Dr. Lance W. Brunner

Director of Graduate Studies

RULES FOR USE OF DISSERTATION

Unpublished dissertation submitted for the Doctor’s degree and deposited in the

University of Kentucky Library are as a rule open for inspection, but are to be used with

due regard to the rights of the authors. Bibliographical references may be noted, but

quotations or summaries of parts may be published only with the permission of the

author, and with the usual scholarly acknowledgements.

Extensive copying or publication of the thesis in whole or in part requires also the

consent of the Dean of the Graduate School of the University of Kentucky.

A library which borrows this thesis for use by its patrons is expected to secure the

signature of each user.

DISSERTATION

Jennifer Sue Shank

The Graduate School

University of Kentucky

2003

THE EFFECT OF VISUAL ART ON MUSIC LISTENING

______________________________

DISSERTATION

_____________________________

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the

Requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

in the College of Fine Arts at

The University of Kentucky

Jennifer Sue Shank

Lexington, Kentucky

Director:

Dr. Cecilia Wang, Associate Professor of Music

Lexington, Kentucky

2003

For my Parents

ACKNOWELDGMENTS

I would like to thank all the people that made the impossible possible. Thank you to Bill

and Lisa, for always being there. Thank you to my grandparents, Marge Jossi and August

Keyerleber, who have supported me and made sure there was food on the table and a

warm place to sleep. Thank you to Dr. Cecilia Wang, whose mentoring, guidance and

friendship were invaluable throughout my education. To Dr. David Sogin who has

helped me grow from a scared new student to a confident graduate. To Dr. Kate

Covington, Dr. Ron Pen and Dr. Skip Kifer for agreeing to sit on my committee. To my

colleagues, April McAllister and Donna Irwin, to whom I am eternally grateful for all of

the help, support and graded papers. And finally, thank you to my parents, Janet and Bill

Shank, for always encouraging me and allowing me to be anything in life.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS………………………………………………………………..………iii

LIST OF TABLES..………………………………………………………………………………vi

LIST OF FIGURES…..………………………………………………….………………………vii

LIST OF FILES………………………………………………………….……………………...viii

Chapter One: Introduction………………………...………………………………………………1

Chapter Two: Related Literature…....…………………………………………………………….3

Part One: On Listening……………………………………………………………………3

The Basis of Listening….…………………………………………………………3

Processing of Sound During Listening……………………………………………5

Listening for Understanding………………………………………………………7

Listening Lesson Approaches……………………………………………………..9

Aesthetic Education Through Listening…….……………………………..……..10

Listeners with Different Learning Styles….……………………………………..15

Differences Among Listeners...………………………………………………….17

Motivation for Listening…………………………………………………………18

Part Two: On Visual Stimuli…………………………………………………………….20

Visual Stimuli and Instruction…………………………………………………...20

Historical Connection Between Visual Art and Music…………….……………22

Art in Music Education…………………………………………………………..24

Applications of Gestalt Principles in Art and Music…………………………….24

Memory and Listening…...……………………………………………………...29

Statement of the Hypothesis……………………………………………………………..31

Chapter Three: Methodology and Introduction………..………………………………………...32

Selection of Subjects……………………………………………………………………..32

Research Design………………………………………………………………………….33

Instrumentation…………………………………………………………………………..35

Procedure………………………………………………………………………………...37

Treatment………………………………………………………………………………...39

Music and Art Used in the Study………………………………………………………...40

Chapter Four: Results……………………………………………………………………………45

Results Related to Listening Skills………………………………………..……………..46

Results of Hypothesis Testing………………………………………………..…….……53

Secondary Results……………………………………………………………..…………53

Summary…………………………………………………………………………………57

Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations………………………………………………..57

Recommendations for Further Research….……………………………………….……..64

Implications for Educational Practice..…………………………………………………..65

Appendices………………………………………………………………………………………67

Appendix A- TMLST……………………………………………………………………67

Appendix B- Recall Test…………………………………………………………………77

Appendix C- Permission…………………………………………………………………83

Appendix D- IRB………………………………………………………………………...84

Appendix E- Sample Listening Lesson Scripts …….……..………………………….…85

Appendix F- Concepts Taught During Listening Lessons………………………….……87

Appendix G-Art Survey………………………………………………………………….90

Appendix H- Pilot Study…………………………………………………………………92

References………………………………………………………………………………………106

Vita……………………………………………………………………………………………...117

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1 Participant Demographic Information………………………………………………...45

Table 4.2 Table of Means for Pre-test TMLST for Subgroups 1-8……………….……………..46

Table 4.3 ANOVA Summary of TMLST for Pre-test Subgroups 1-8…...………………………47

Table 4.4 Table of Means for Pre-test Part B for Classes 1-4…..……………...………………..47

Table 4.5 ANOVA Summary of TMLST for Class Sections 1-4…...…………………………...48

Table 4.6 ANOVA Summary for Pre-test………...……….……………………………………..48

Table 4.7 Mean Values of TMLST Part A..……………………………………………………..49

Table 4.8 Mean Values of TMLST Part B…...…………………………………………………..49

Table 4.9 TMLST Means Showing Improvement from Pre-test to Post-test..…………………..50

Table 4.10 ANOVA Summary of TMLST Post-test for the Experimental and Control Groups..50

Table 4.11 Table of Means for TMLST Post-test for Subgroups 1-8…………………………...51

Table 4.12 Table of Means Shows Improvement from Pre-test to Post-test Divided by Subgroups

1-8………………………………………………………………………………………………..52

Table 4.13 Means of TMLST Post-test per Excerpt Score for Each Category…………………..54

Table 4.14 Mean Rating for Preference and Familiarity…………………….…………………..55

Table 4.15 Significant Correlations………………….…………………………………………..56

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Common Decibel Ranges……………………………………………………………...4

Figure 2.2 The Ear………………………………………………………………………………...5

Figure 2.3 Wlodkoski’s Time Continuum Model for Motivation……………………………….18

Figure 2.4 Music and Association with Gestalt Laws…………………………………………...28

Figure 3.1 Research Study Design Model.…….…...……………………………………………34

Figure 3.2 Music Used in the Study……………………………………………………………...41

Figure 3.3 Paintings Used in this Study….……………………………………………………...42

Figure 3.4 Art and Music Combined, Direct and Indirect Relationships……………………..…42

vii

LIST OF FILES

Dissertation, Jennifer S. Shank, The Univerisity of Kentucky………………………………645kb

viii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Listening to music is prerequisite to all other musical pursuits. Focus of attention

combined with developing a high level of aural discrimination seems to provide the basis

for meaningful music listening. Listening contributes to musical understanding and

enjoyment as well as increasing one’s aesthetic sensitivity (Madsen, C. & Geringer, J.M.

2000). The ability to listen is the first and most important skill that is needed for all

musical activities. Haack (1992) states,

Listening is the fundamental skill. Some aestheticians argue or imply that

until sounds are heard and perceived as music, there is no music. Clearly

this is the practical truth as concerns music listening. Music exists for

hearing and listening. Such listening is a skill in and of itself, as well as a

vital part of all other musical skills. Yet music listening is among the last

and least studied aspects of music (p. 451).

The National Standards for Arts Education (Consortium of National Arts Education

Associations, 1994) states that “proficient” students in grades 9-12 should be able to

“identify and explain compositional devices and techniques used to provide unity and

variety and tension and release in a musical work”(p. 61). “Advanced” students should

be able to “analyze and describe uses of the elements of music in a given work that make

it unique, interesting and expressive” (p.61). In order to accomplish these tasks students

must be able to hear the interaction between the elements of music that the composer has

used and be able to recall them.

People who are not musically trained approach listening differently than trained

musicians do. The non-trained person listens to features such as texture and melody

before other aspects of a musical piece. Previous research has indicated that adults learn

better when they are presented with materials in a multi-sensory way. This would

suggest that the use of paintings to reinforce musical knowledge would enhance the

listening skills of college students.

We compare the arts in order to discover similarities and common elements and to

draw parallels between them. Aristotle’s influential categorization in The Poetics of

painting, music and poetry as imitative arts was an element in his quest for a unified

theory of aesthetics. The need to compare also comes from the frequent inadequacy or

failure of the aesthetic language. Whenever critics and aestheticians have found

themselves struggling to describe something they have perceived in a work of poetry,

music or visual art, they have often fallen back on expressions such as the “poetry of

painting, the painting of poetry or the poetry of music,” attempting to characterize

something difficult to define by referring it to something else that is difficult to define.

The hope, presumably, is that some aspect of one art form will help to illuminate some

aspect of the other (Kagan, 1986). This hope fuels the idea of using art to help

understand music. Art and music are interrelated and influential upon each other for

inspiration, shared meaning and symbolic representation.

In the present school curriculum, we expect our classroom teachers to integrate

the arts into teaching different subjects and one or two courses in teaching music are

usually required college courses for teacher preparation programs. When teachers are

asked to integrate music into a general education classroom they are expected to make

listening an integral part of that, yet, there is very little research to indicate what method

is effective in training the listening skills of future teachers.

The purpose of this study is to investigate whether using the projected images of

paintings will enhance the ability of pre-service teaching candidates to identify and

recognize musical features of particular musical excerpts. If awareness of similarities in

the visual stimuli serves as a catalyst for awareness of similarities in the auditory stimuli,

this would indicate that visual art should be employed for pedagogical purposes in the

future.

CHAPTER TWO

RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter contains a review of literature on listening and visual stimuli. In

examining listening, it is important to look at how sound is created and internalized by

the ear and brain, how humans process sound, and how people understand that for which

they listen. Other important elements to consider are approaches in listening lessons,

aesthetic education and listening, listeners with different learning styles, and the

motivation for listening. The subject of visual stimuli is a broad topic that can be

examined in a multitude of ways. For this study, the aspects of visual stimuli that are

most important are those that directly affect how individuals process what they see and

how they process it in conjunction with other stimuli. Factors in this research include

visual stimuli and instruction, connecting visual art and music, applications of Gestalt

principles in art and music, and memory and learning.

Part One

On Listening

The Basis of Listening

The capacity to perceive music and respond at both a cognitive and an affective

level can be learned through particular listening experiences. One of the goals of music

education is to present strategies which will encourage attention to the music and enable

the listener to form cognitive and affective opinions on a piece. In order for these

activities to be effective, active engagement is necessary. To engage a listener, activities

and lessons must be developed that enhance understanding and allow the listener to

organize information in a meaningful way.

Even before examining how to approach active listening, one must consider how

one listens. It is the sensory experience of hearing that makes the perception of music

possible. The ability for individuals to use their hearing for the purpose of listening

varies. Good hearing does not necessarily insure skilled listening and, conversely, poor

hearing does not indicate an inability to listen. While good hearing is not completely

dependent on one’s ability to listen well, hearing does play a significant role in the

perception of music (Darrow, 1990). Listening is a mental process; the act of hearing is a

physical one. Understanding the physical act of hearing can offer insight into the human

potential for the capacity to listen and, ultimately, to understand. Examination of the

components of the aural process can provide general guidelines for structuring and

sequencing listening experiences. Sound consists of vibrations that travel in waves,

generally through air. Sound waves travel at different rates of speed; the faster the waves

travel the higher the pitch. Frequency is the measured number of vibrations per second

and is represented in hertz (Lipscomb & Hodges, 1996). Pitch is a subjective judgment,

while frequency is the physical reality of the speed of the sound wave. Normal hearing

range is 20-20,000 Hz. Intensity of sound is the amount of energy within a sound wave.

Intensity can be measured quantitatively in decibels, but loudness is a subjective

measurement of sound. Intensity is measured in decibels (dB). Zero decibels are the

quietest sound. Sound that exceeds 120 decibels can cause pain (Lipscomb & Hodges,

1996). Common decibel ranges are presented in the chart below.

Figure 2.1 Common Decibel Levels

Decibel Levels Sound Source Musical Level

0dB just audible sound

30dB soft whisper background music

50dB normal conversation mp

60dB loud conversation mf

80dB shouting f

90dB shouting marching band

The ear is divided into three parts: outer, middle and inner ear. (See figure below)

Figure 2.2 The Ear

Sound waves enter the external canal of the outer ear, strike the eardrum and cause the

eardrum to vibrate. The vibrations from the eardrum reach the three bones of the middle

ear, the malleus, incus and stapes. These bones carry the sound waves across the middle

ear to the inner ear. Within the inner ear are the semicircular canals and the cochlea.

The semicircular canals are filled with fluid and lined with hairs and are responsible for

balance and equilibrium. The chochlea is involved in hearing. Within the cochlea lies

the Organ of Corti which is covered with many fine hairs. Sounds of different

frequencies affect hair cells at different locations. The thinner, shorter hairs, near the

opening of the Organ of Corti, respond to high sounds. The thicker, longer hairs, farthest

from the opening, pick up low sounds. Intensity is determined primarily by how many

hair cells are affected. The more hairs that are made to vibrate by a sound wave the

louder the sound is perceived. The auditory nerve then receives impulses from these

hairs and carries it to the hearing center (auditory cortex) within the brain. Once the

brain assumes control of the process, hearing becomes listening.

Processing of Sound During Listening

The brain is responsible for the levels of discrimination that we make during

listening. Training the brain to listen requires several elements: analysis of the desired

auditory task, the structuring of successive approximations to the desired goal, and

regular and systematic evaluation of auditory level. According to Norman P. Erber and

Ira J. Hirsh (1978), auditory tasks can be broken into four basic levels of aural

processing: (Erber & Hirsh, 1978).

1. Detection, in which the listener determines the presence or absence of

specified sound stimuli.

2. Discrimination, in which the listener perceives differences in sound stimuli

such as loud and soft or high and low.

3. Identification, in which the listener appropriately applies labels to the sounds

4. Comprehension, in which the listener makes critical judgments regarding the

sound stimuli.

There are a number of other listening behaviors that can be subsumed within the four

basic levels of the auditory processing mentioned above. In 1977, Derek Sanders

developed a hierarchy of auditory processing for speech. Since both speech and music

have similar properties, Sanders’ hierarchy can be applied to music. The following is that

hierarchy with reference to application in music:

1. Awareness of acoustic stimuli.

2. Localization: Can the listener identify the location of the sound source?

3. Attention: Can the listener attend to music over time?

4. Discrimination between speech and non speech or chant and melody.

5. Auditory discrimination: Can the listener discriminate between the timbres of

different instruments; can he or she locate the entrance and exit of specific

instruments within the total music context?

6. Suprasegmental discrimination: can the listener make discriminations about the

expressive qualities of the music?

7. Segmental discrimination: can the listener make discriminations about pitch?

8. Auditory memories: can the listener remember what instruments were heard?

9. Auditory sequential memory: can the listener remember in what order

instruments were heard?

10. Auditory syntheses: can the listener make critical judgments regarding form,

texture and harmony?

According to Sanders (1977), suprasegmental discrimination is defined as discrimination

on a large scale of such things as texture, form and expressive elements and segmental

discrimination is defined as discrimination of musical cues such as pitch. Sanders, along

with the other research, suggest that there are steps to listening and the process of

listening. This lends itself to what takes place during a listening activity in a music

education class such as the one used for this research. Students begin with an awareness

of acoustic stimuli and work their way through the hierarchy to achieve auditory memory.

Students are presented with a new musical piece to listen to and they are directed as to

what to listen for. Students make discriminations whether there are voices or

instrumental only, then different timbres, instrumentation and entrances and exits of

instruments. After students have made discriminations on timbre and instrumentation,

students then make critical decisions on expressive qualities.

Listening for Understanding

Once the hearing process involves mental processing, hearing becomes listening.

Successful listening is an active process that enhances understanding of the sound.

Listening is temporal because it involves making sense of information that is never all

presented at the same time. Understanding of aural events depends on what a listener

retains in a continuous moving stream of information (Elliott, D. J. 1995). Processes

involved in listening to music include sensory transduction, auditory grouping, analysis

of auditory properties and features, and matching immediate sonic events with an

auditory lexicon of previously experienced sounds (McAdams, S. 1993). For a listener

to deduce meaning and understanding from music, the music must create a meaningful

connection to that listener. Elliott (1995) points out that listening to music is analogous

to constructing a moving jigsaw puzzle. Listeners do not simply listen from wholes-to-

parts or parts-to-wholes because auditory parts and wholes coalesce (p.84). Green (1988)

describes the experience of listening to music as the result of the interaction between our

perceptions of the inherent meaning of sound (structural elements) and the degree to

which the sounds delineate themselves as sounds which are meaningful to us. This

would suggest that for listening to be active and successful, the musical sounds must be

familiar in some ways and must be associative with meaningful representation. In other

words, the sounds must have familiar timbres or instrument sounds and those sounds

must match our socially defined concepts about music.

A person who has experienced many ways of organizing particular types of

stimuli is at an advantage when confronted by unfamiliar materials that need organization

(Tait and Haack, 1984). The importance of segmentation in music cognition has been

emphasized in several models of music perception including that of Lerdahl &

Jackendoff (1983) and empirical studies by Krumhansl (1996). Listeners regularly

exploit melodic cues to recognize and to distinguish between different pieces of music

(Rosner & Meyer, 1986). It has also been suggested that anchoring can be effective for

the listening experience. Anchoring, as shown in research by Povel and Jansen (2001),

appears to be a powerful tool for tracing perceptual mechanisms at work in the on-line

processing of music. Anchoring, as was first described by Bharucha (1994), links

unstable tones to stable tones and gives the listener something to focus on within the

melodic structure. Musical experience is meaningful for the listener when the listener is

able to employ information that is familiar to glean understanding. Listening is not a

passive process; there is a difference between simple reception and active construction.

Certain cognitive abilities must be used in order to perceive the sound signals by the ear

and interpret them as music. Acoustical properties of music are organized by the mind

and then associations and connections are made (Mullee, 1996). This information would

suggest that carefully planned listening experiences may lead to a mode of attending that

is both different and more fulfilling than the free associational thinking that listening to

music so often involves. It is possible to increase the likelihood of people actually

engaging in works of art, moving inside of them through acts of imagination, and

perceiving them against their own personal histories as meaningful (Greene, 1986).

Choosing appropriate features for which to listen must be considered. When we

listen to music we actively select salient features from the stream of musical sounds,

focusing our attention one minute on one part of the sound environment and the next

moment on another. Attentional focus is guided by knowledge structures, or schemata,

developed through past experience (Dowling, W.J, & Harwood, D. W,1986. and Neisser

U. 1976). Listeners focus on what is recognizable first, relying on what they have

learned or developed in the past before moving to the new or unrecognizable. Because

listeners seek out salient features that are recognizable it is important to consider what

musical elements should be the focus in this study.

For this research the following musical elements will receive focus during

listening activities: melodic contour, texture, beat structure, articulation rhythm and

instrumentation. Research indicates that listeners’ mental representations of novel

melodies contain contour information but relatively little information about absolute pitch

or exact interval size (Dowling, W. J. 1994). Dowling also states that listeners make

errors about interval and absolute pitch of novel melodies soon after they are presented.

By contrast, listeners retain contour information for longer periods of time. This would

indicate that students would be more successful listening for melodic contour rather than

direct melodies. With regard to instrumentation, Rentz (1992) suggests that non-

musicians pay less attention to tone colors of strings while selecting the more obvious

tone color of brass, percussion and woodwind instruments. For this study, music was

chosen to reflect Rentz’s research. Beat structure, articulation and texture were chosen

based on the model by Sanders (1977). Sanders suggests that the use of suprasegmental

discrimination and segmental discrimination allows the listener to pick out global

concepts such as form and musical elements such as texture. He also suggests that the

highest level in his hierarchy would allow the listener to make critical judgments

regarding form and texture.

Listening Lesson Approaches

Carefully planned listening experiences may lead to a mode of attending that is

both different and more fulfilling than the reverie and free association thinking that

casual listening to music so often involves. Often, these planned listening experiences

are organized by following listening guides. The purpose of a listening guide is to focus

specifically on what to listen for in music. Strategies for planned listening experiences

include presenting a systematic method of music analysis, examining musical styles and

treatment of musical structure during different chronological periods, and exploring

different forms of music. Some of these approaches include The Experience of Music

(Reimer, 1972). The book explores the creative process of music, examining the

aesthetic sensibilities of the composer, the performer and the listener. Reimer also

discusses music by categorizing the structural elements: Rhythm, Harmony, Melody,

Tone Color, and Form. Reimer has also created a set of listening lessons to accompany

his 1972 text, Developing the Experience of Music: Listening Charts (1973). This text

lays out a concise plan for teaching students to listen by dividing lessons by musical

element. The listening charts are designed to focus on one musical element at a time.

For example, there are eight listening lessons that focus on form with different musical

examples for each. A Concise Introduction to Music Listening (Hoffer, 1979) suggests a

different approach that is more segmented into basic elements, musical form, and musical

types, western and nonwestern. Chapters are not laid out by musical element; instead the

text is laid out to follow an order of what students should know to be able to listen

effectively. Chapters include instruction on how music is written down, how to classify a

piece of music and instructions on how to listen.

Each text and listening guide is concerned with changing the listener’s perception

and origination of various elements in music. Both of these texts offer a great deal of

information, but for listeners who are not knowledgeable in music and who may not be

familiar with what they are listening for, these guides may be overwhelming or

discouraging to a listener. The approach favored by this researcher is to promote

listening skills by using materials familiar to the listeners in a multi-sensory setting.

Aesthetic Education Through Listening

The ability to detect aesthetic form (the arrangement of elements that attracts,

holds and directs the interest of the listener) is at the heart of music education (Broudy,

1958). This ability is needed to be successful at any musical skill, listening included.

Schwadron (1967) states that meaning in music is connected with the uniqueness of the

organization and control of sound, notated by symbols and characterized by the

relationships of music to the human senses and intellect. Music combines formal

elements such as melody, harmony, rhythm, and timbre into aesthetically patterned

sounds that have symbolic meaning in a culture of a society and its individuals (Mullee,

1996). The quality of a musical experience depends upon the type of connection that

occurs between the perception of musical stimuli and the responses to musical stimuli.

Sound emotion is a single musical concept and cultural associations are related in

listening to a performance (Masterson, 1994). Green (1988) describes musical

experience as a result of the interaction between our perception of the inherent meaning

of sound and the degree to which these sounds delineate themselves as sounds which are

meaningful to us. In other words, do they match our socially defined concepts about

music? This is particularly relevant in listening situations which present music to which

that the listener is unaccustomed.

In experiencing the combination of inherent and delineated meaning of an

unfamiliar musical experience, the capacity to actively engage in musical situations gains

insight into one’s self (musical or otherwise) and into the relationship of one’s self to

one’s own and other musical cultures. Accompanying all such risk-taking, disorientation

and eventual musical acculturation is self-examination and the personal reconstruction of

one’s relationships, assumptions and performances (Elliott, 1990).

The active contribution that listeners make in the aesthetic situation should not be

underestimated. Levinson (1990) states that we can feel emotion and recognize its

expression in the structure of tones in music. Both the emotion and musical structures

reference one another to heighten the expressiveness of the musical focus. Even strictly

formalist theories recognize that art, specifically music, is never self contained. Roger

Fry (1920) admits that art causes emotional responses based on our physical and

psychological traits. Although the basis for awareness in humans lies in the perception of

the senses, the scope of aesthetic experiences requires us to expand the definition of

perception to include the realms of imagination, fantasy, memory and dreams. This type

of inclusion of the perceptual experience is central to music and all of the arts. Dowling

and Harwood (1986) have found that listeners find it quite natural to attach general

emotional labels to pieces of music.

Dewey (1958) recognized the concept of total organic involvement in art - the

biological, the constant rhythm that marks the interaction of the live creature with his

surroundings (p. 15). This underlies his philosophy of experience including art:

It is proof that man uses the materials and energies of nature with intent to

expand his own life and he does so in accord with the structure of his own

organism- brain, sense-organs and muscular system. Art is the living and

concrete proof that man is capable of restoring consciously and thus on the

plane of meaning, the union of sense, need, impulse and action

characteristic of the live creature. The intervention of consciousness adds

regulation, power of selection and predisposition (p.25).

Suzanne Langer (1957) maintains that art possesses the form of living things and that

artistic forms are symbolic of human feeling. Art embodies the form of experience-what

life feels like. She makes the distinction between discursive forms of symbolization

which communicate meanings in an unambiguous manner and presentational symbols

such as those used in the arts which communicate metaphorically, where the symbol or

symbols must be seen “as a whole” rather than divided into individual meanings.

Berleant (1991), advocating a participatory aesthetic, emphasizes replacing

disinterestedness with engagement and contemplation with participation. He outlines the

four principal aspects of the aesthetic situation: the creative, the objective, the

appreciative and the performative. In his view, “music exemplifies the creative aspect of

perception; the composer’s activity in generating musical materials that is paralleled by

both the performer and the listener” (p.5). Music as a performing art is unique in that it

exists in time and needs to be recreated by both performers and listeners. Clarke (1989)

recognizes this, stating that musical events and the way in which they are performed,

perceived and created by performer and listeners give greater recognition to the natural

relationship that characterizes an organism and its environment.

All of these views of aesthetic experience share commonalties in that they reflect

an enlarging of aesthetic experience beyond a particular act of consciousness or

disinterested contemplation of a separate aesthetic object. It is the capacity to respond to

these properties that concerns us as educators. How does one change perception or

understanding of deeper intrinsic meaning? How does a teacher facilitate receptivity?

A place to start is with philosophers such as Langer and Goodman, who have both

written extensively on symbolization. Goodman (1968) continues Langer’s line of

thinking regarding the difference between discursive and presentational symbol systems.

He examines the psychological and educational implications of different kinds of

symbolic competencies:

“Once the arts and sciences are seen to involve working with- inventing,

applying, reading, transforming, manipulating, - symbol systems that

agree and differ in certain specific ways, we can perhaps undertake

pointed psychological investigations of how the pertinent skills inhibit or

enhance one another; and the outcome might well call for changes in

educational technology” (p.265).

Goodman (1968) calls attention to a range of symbolic codes such as language,

gesture, and musical notation. Human artistry is viewed as an activity of the mind, an

activity that involves the use and transformation of various symbols and symbol systems.

Individuals who wish to participate meaningfully in artistic perception must learn to

decode the various artistic symbols in their culture; individuals who wish to participate in

artistic creation must learn how to manipulate those symbols. Just as one cannot assume

that in the absence of help and support individuals will learn to read and write in their

natural language, one can assume that individuals can benefit from assistance in learning

to “read” and “write” in the various languages of the arts (Gardner, 1990, p.9). That

being said, a music program must address this and students must learn to understand the

symbols presented during a listening experience. Information is presented during the

performance of a piece of music and students should have the tools needed to participate

meaningfully.

The task in music education has been to discover truths about music, musical

behavior, and cognitive and affective links so that the aesthetic experience might be

identified, purused and developed in the proper educational setting (Schwadron, 1984,

p.17). Broudy (1958) maintains that the place of music in a specific curriculum should

be based on aesthetic considerations. Leonhard and House (1972) also write that the

primary purpose of music education is to develop the aesthetic potential possessed by

every person to its highest level. They believe aesthetic education satisfies our basic

need for symbolic experience and provides a means for self-realization and insight

(p.115). Reimer (1989) has constructed teaching models supporting his view that insights

from aesthetics, when incorporated with the expertise of musicians and educators, can

help articulate the values of the music experience and, specifically, listening.

Bowman (1969) calls for an aesthetic–based type of musical listening instruction.

He writes, “to engage in criticism as instructional method is to guide students away from

snap judgments, to direct them toward preferences grounded in closely scrutinized value

systems undergirded by the fullest possible musical awareness, to foster ultimate

sensitivity for the considered views of others and a willingness to entertain alternative

perspectives and to develop a tolerance for variousness and difficulty” (p.12). Reimer

(1993) states that “music education must concern itself with both the diversity and depth

of quality of the musical experience” (p.21). “Music is a universal, human phenomenon,

yet at the same time, is a manifestation of a particular cultural belief system about how

sound should properly be made into music” (p. 24).

The position of many music education theorists is consistent with the position set

forth by the Getty Foundation and the National Endowment for the Arts: arts education

should include history, aesthetics and criticism, in addition to performance or production.

Unfortunately, emphasis in many music programs is almost entirely performance-based,

an emphasis that has generated support from parents and administrators (Leonhard,

1991p.203). Performance programs have done great things for both the profession and

the students involved in them. However, general music programs, despite the profession

recommendations, have not fared as well. “Many college students claim to have missed

out on having music available to them in elementary school and others regret not having

taken some music course beyond elementary school” (Drago, 1993 p. 40). Bresler (1993)

argues that the goals of music education are agreed upon, yet there exists a gap between

desired and actual outcomes. Although perception is the basis of musical experience

(Campbell, 1991, p35), the average listener receives no instruction in categorizing

musical phenomena. Most music is listened to and filtered through self-created and often

biased categories (Cutietta, 1993, p.52).

The literature regarding aesthetics in music education suggests that music

educators and administrators seem to agree that the development of listening skills should

rank highly as a concept in a music curriculum and that understanding what one listens to

is valuable to developing abilities for listening. Active listening is something most

people are capable of learning yet it does not receive the focus or attention due to a

variety of reasons, including time and budgetary constraints. Because of these

constraints, it is all the more important to teach general educators how to listen and how

to teach listening effectively.

Listeners with Different Learning Styles

People learn in different ways. In order to have a better understanding of how

people learn it is valuable to look at the process by which people learn and the mode

people use to learn most effectively. Learning style theory has its roots in the

psychoanalytic community (Silver, Strong and Perini, 1997). Carl Jung (1927) was the

father of learning style theory in that he noted the differences in the way students

perceived, made decisions and interacted, and how active or reflective they were while

interacting. Katherine Briggs and Isabel Meyers (1977) created the Myers-Briggs Type

Indicator, applied Jung’s work and influenced 25 years of research in this area.

Educators have become aware of the research of cognitive and educational psychologists

in the area of individual differences and learning styles. The research of these

psychologists in the area of learning styles, following the lead of Jung and Myers and

Briggs, includes that by Grasha and Reichmann, (1975); Hill, (1976); Dunn and Dunn,

(1978); Kolb, (1981); Gregorc, (1982); Silver and Hanson, (1995). Although theories in

learning style interpret the personality in different ways, nearly all models have two

things in common: a focus on process and an emphasis on personality (Silver, Strong &

Perini, 1997). Each of these theories provides educators with additional insights into how

to work with a diverse population of learners.

Learning styles are broadly described as cognitive, affective and physiological

traits that are relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with and

respond to the learning environment (Keefe, 1979). More specifically, style refers to a

pervasive quality in the learning strategies or the learning behavior of an individual, “a

quality that persists though content may change” (Fischer and Fischer, 1979, p. 245).

Learning style can also be defined as a biological developmental set of personal

characteristics that make the identical instruction effective for some students and

ineffective for others (Dunn and Dunn, 1993). Awareness of these different learning

strengths allows educators to customize lessons and presentations using multiple

modalities.

Research with secondary education students shows that teaching should address

all types of learning styles and use multi-sensory instructional materials, thus providing

resources and alternatives to assist students in gaining mastery of the curriculum (Park,

2000). This research would suggest that given how adults process learning, using a

multi-sensory approach to a concept would be more effective than using one mode of

teaching and one learning style.

Humans are typically visually oriented and the retention of information

presented in a visual form usually exceeds retention of information presented verbally

(Levie & Lentz, 1982). Being visually oriented however is typically not enough.

Students should have Visual Literacy, the ability to interpret visual messages accurately

along with the ability to create such messages (Rakes & Rakes, 1995). Research suggests

that the appropriate use of relevant visuals can enhance recall and understanding of

material, increase interest and motivation, and promote critical thinking (Blatnik, 1988,

Pressley and Miller, 1987 and Issing et al, 1989). Many studies demonstrate that visual

learning can positively affect cognitive process such as recall and problem solving

(Anglin, 1986; Ritchey, 1982; Yang and Wedman, 1993). Combining one or more

learning style also enhances learning. A breadth of processing occurs when identical

content is used in two different forms. This then can lead to better memory because

understanding of one form is likely to improve understanding through the other form

(Craik & Tulving, 1975). Using more than one sensory modality and instructional

materials with dual mode presentation, (e.g. visual diagram accompanied by an auditory

text) can be more efficient than the equivalent single modality formats (Kalyuga, S,

Chandler, P & Sweller, J, 2000). Also, the amount of information that can be processed

using both auditory and visual channels can be considerably larger than that using only a

single channel (Kalyuga, S, Chandler, P & Sweller, J, 2000). Therefore, it can be

assumed that a treatment that actively used both visual and auditory modes for learning a

concept would be effective for more learners. It also suggests that using two learning

modalities allows the learner to use a representation that may not directly explain a

concept but in some way enhances it. A picture that does not directly explain a concept

can provide a visual representation in memory to which the student can link supporting

ideas (McDaneil & Pressley, 1987). This would lend itself well to using visual art to

assist students in listening concepts of musical compositions. For this research, the

listening lessons will employ two modalities, the visual and the aural modalities.

Differences Among Listeners

Previous research findings indicate that listeners use different strategies in

listening. Since the subjects for this study are adults and musically untrained, it is

important to understand how they listen. In regard to the manner in which non-

musicians learn to listen, Madsen and Geringer (1990) indicated that musicians attend to

listening significantly differently than non-musicians. Musicians spend most of their

time attending to melody first, followed by rhythm, dynamics, and timbre, respectively.

Non-musicians spend the majority of their time focusing on dynamics, followed by

melody, timbre, and rhythm, respectively. Blocher (1990), however, found no significant

differences in the ability of musicians and non-musicians to attend to errors in

articulation, rhythm, phrasing, intonation, dynamics or note accuracy. Geringer and

Madsen (1995), in a study where the subjects were asked to note the prominence of

musical elements after they listened to a musical excerpt, found that musicians and non-

musicians had different listening patterns. Musicians listed timbre more frequently than

non-musicians did. A study by Wolpert (2000) showed that non-musicians did not hear

the difference in key or dissonance as well as musicians did. In that study, musicians

heard the difference in key 100% of the time whereas non-musicians heard it only 40% of

the time. Deutsch (1982) suggests that in recognizing a segment of music, we employ

global as well as specific cues, such as overall pitch range and distribution of interval

sizes, among others, so that melodies can be identified by their specific cues as a whole.

Earlier research results by Madsen (1987) and, Madsen and Wolf, (1979) suggest that

people attend to whatever they believe they should be attending to. This implies that non-

musicians can be directed to listen for specific ideas in sound.

Another consideration is the manner in which adults learn. The adult learner has

specific needs and expectations which differ greatly from elementary and secondary

school students. Lindeman introduced the pragmatic nature of adult learning in 1926

when he wrote that the approach to adult education should be focused on the situation

rather than the subject. Tough (1979) found that many adults start a learning project

because they anticipate using knowledge in a concrete way, strong motivation to gain and

retain knowledge that will produce some lasting change. Similarly, Scheckley (1983)

found that immediate knowledge was the reason most adults begin learning projects.

Literature on adult teaching strategies suggests the development of short, intensive

learning experiences with direct applications to the adult students’ lives (Wratcher and

Jones, 1988; Pomerance, 1991). Thus, lessons for adults should be interactive, well

managed with regard to time, and most of all, practical with regard to future use. This

would suggest that the present study should attend to adult’s learning needs. The lessons

should be relevant, intensive, and short in nature.

Motivation for Listening

Wlodkoski’s (1985) Time Continuum Model of Motivation focuses on the

internal motivation of adults. Wlodkowski defines this as “a condition expressed by the

individual as an internal force that leads the person to move in the direction of the goal”

(p. 17). He believes that the motivation to learn is internal and depends on the students’

needs and expectations at a given time in the learning process. This model has been

applied successfully in research by Mullee (1996) and would serve well as a basis for the

present study.

Figure 2.3 Wlodkoski’s Time Continuum Model for Motivation

The model consists of three time frames in the learning process: beginning, duration and

end. For each time frame there are two major factors of motivation present. The

beginning motivation is mostly effected by the learners’ attitudes towards the general

learning environment, instructor subject matter, self, and the basic needs of the learner at

the onset of learning. During the learning process, motivation is influenced by the

stimulation and interest of the learner and the affective experience that learning provides.

At the end, the learner is able to apply new skills and become aware of new knowledge,

thereby feeling competent.

At the beginning of the process, the instructor needs to create a positive,

comfortable learning atmosphere to establish positive learner attitudes. Wodolkski goes

on to write that the beginning time frame is a critical period in determining the way

learners respond to and feel about what they are experiencing. At the same time that

attitude is being established and supported, the instructor should also attempt to maintain

learner attention and build learner interests. To insure a positive affective experience and

emotional climate, learners need from the instructor encouragement and assistance that

integrate their emotions within the learning process, methods and strategies that

emphasizes cooperation and maximize learner involvement, and sharing that contributes

to a supportive environment. Finally, the instructor should acknowledge the positive

changes that learning has produced and affirm and continue motivation for application

and future learning.

Part Two

On Visual Stimuli

Visual Stimuli and Instruction

Research in learning style shows that individuals utilize different types of stimuli,

auditory, visual, tactile and kinesthetic, to enhance learning. One of those stimuli is

visual, or using the sense of sight. Visual learning represents a particular form of human

achievement, one that includes the ability to notice what is visually subtle and use it in

ways that are personally meaningful (Eisner, E. 1998). Eisner also goes on to state that

visual learning pertains not only to our capacity to construe meaning from the visual

forms around us but to our capacity to create connections of visual stimuli with other

forms of stimuli including auditory stimuli. Apart from listening to auditory stimuli, in

the form of lecture and verbal instruction, visual stimuli are used extensively in

instruction in the form of charts, pictures, diagrams and video imaging. The visual

stimulus is then processed into a meaningful representation for the individual enhancing

what he or she is learning. Research indicates that the amount of information that can

be processed using both auditory and visual channels may be considerably larger than

information processed using a single channel (Kalyuga, Chandler, and Sweller, 2000).

Studies, including those by Anglin (1986), Ritchey (1982) and Yang & Weidman (1993),

demonstrate that visual learning can positively affect cognitive processes such as recall

and problem solving. The appropriate use of visuals can enhance recall and

understanding of material, increase motivation, and promote critical thinking (Blatnik,

1998; Levie and Lentz, 1982; Levie 1987; and Peeck 1987). The manner in which

information is presented visually can make a significant difference, especially for

students who have difficulty in one or more perception areas (Dickey, J.P. & Hendricks,

R.C 1991). It is noteworthy that the visual does not have to directly explain a concept in

order to provide a link for the memory process. In Imagery and Related Mnemonic

Devices by McDaniel and Pressley (1987), the authors point out numerous examples of

how visual stimuli do not have to be a complete one-to-one relationship with the

particular concept or event to be effective in creating a memory link.

Since the use of visual stimuli can affect memory and thus learning, the use of

visual stimuli should be made to enhance the music learning as well. The use of visual-

spatial stimuli to reinforce auditory discrimination has been incorporated in some popular

approaches to music teaching such as the Orff or Kodaly approaches. These approaches

make use of graphic representation of sound prior to learning musical notation and they

meet with strong endorsements from theorists and practitioners alike (Boardman, E.,

2001; Boardman & Andress, B., 1981, and Nye R.E. & Nye V.T., 1977). In fact,

research has been conducted using visual stimuli and music to indicate positive

relationships. Results of a study by Forsythe, J.C. & Kelly, M.M. (1989) suggest that the

use of visual cues paired with melodies is an effective aid to aural discrimination among

fourth grade subjects. In this study, 30 brief melodies were paired with visual cues in the

form of hand cues. There was a significant difference in identifying melodies between

those students who received visual cues and those students who did not. Other studies

have also shown positive results pairing visual and aural modalities. Olson (1978, 1981)

conducted several studies concerned with the perception of melodic contour in visual and

aural modes. Subjects were asked to determine whether visual and aural stimuli

presented matched and although research proved not to be significant it did suggest that

aural and visual stimuli could be paired temporally. Hair (1993) showed that children

were able to articulate descriptions of music when they were allowed to use drawn

representations or symbols and icons. Hair (1995) also showed that color was effective

when asking both adults and children to associate color to mood and a musical

composition.

While visual art is expressed in space and music is expressed through time, and

each is unique as an art form, music and art do have common linkage. Both evoke

human feelings and both rely on the concept of unity and contrast for expression.

Specifically, it is the structure that makes it possible to correlate art and musical stimuli.

Goldberg, and Schrack, (1986) stated that the correlation of musical and visual structures

is a theoretical discipline to be worked out creatively, similar to counterpoint or common

practice harmony. It involves studying the basic concepts common to both visual and

musical arts such as line, texture, rhythm and color and analyzing works of artists like

Kupka, Kandinsky and Klee who have developed ideas of correlation. Limbert and

Polzella (1998) showed that listening to matching music while viewing paintings

apparently intensified the listening experience. Haack (1970) showed that the use of

visual exemplars was found to enhance the development of the desired musical concepts

significantly and to bring about a definite improvement in related art viewing skills.

Stravinsky and Scriabin possessed skills of color hearing and their compositions express

richness in timbre. Scriabin assigned each pitch a direct color through chordal

complexities and according to some sources, he deduced the full cycle from his

spontaneous recognition of C=red, D=yellow and F#= Blue (Shaw-Miller, 2002).

Composers are not the only artistic individuals to have chromosthesis. It is documented

that Kandinsky also had this trait and painted to express colors in sound (Maur, 1999).

Not only did Kandinsky have chromosthesis but he related art to music in a direct way.

He wrote, “Color is the keyboard, the eye is the hammer, the soul the piano. The artist is

the hand that purposefully sets the vibrating by means of this or that key” (Lindsay &

Vergo, 1982).

Studies using music to enhance art skills have also been conducted. Limbert M.

and Polzella (1998) clearly showed that the music affects the artistically naive listeners

while viewing representational and abstract paintings in their perceptions of the paintings.

All of the above information gives validity to using visual stimuli in music instruction.

This research attempts to study the effects of paintings on a subject’s ability to listen and

recall musical elements.

Historical Connection Between Visual Art and Music

Music and art have been intertwined and compared since early times. In the early

century, in his Critical Reflections on Poetry and Painting (1715), the Abbe Dubos

claimed that “Just as paintings represent the forms and colors of nature, so does music

represent the tones, the accents, the sighs, the modulations of the voice, in short all of the

sounds through which nature itself expresses the feelings and passions…”. Another early

analogy between painting and music appeared in 1762 in Giovanni Berllori’s Lives of

Modern Painters, Sculptors and Architects. Describing Lanfranco’s ceiling decoration at

St. Andrea dell Valle in Rome, Bellori wrote, “ This painting has been rightly compared

to full-bodied music, in which all the tones come together to form a harmony.” In 1849,

Thomas Purdie published a book entitled Form and Sound: Can their beauty be

dependent on the same physical laws? Purdie sought to demonstrate that visual artistic

beauty was universally based on mathematical ratios, manifested in music as the

harmonic rations of vibrating strings (Scheuller, H. M. 1953). From this comparison and

relationship, composers and painters alike have been influenced and created art based on

the other art form. Sometimes the connections can be loose and vague, other times more

intertwined.

Visual artists in the 1800’s explored expressing specific musical elements or

musical form. By the end of the nineteenth century, music and art were trading key ideas

back and forth. In 1853, John Ruskin stated, “We are to remember that the arrangement

of colors and lines is an art analogous to the composition of music.” (Kagan, 1986). A

prime instance is Claude Debussy’s seemingly impressionistic technique of “stippled

notes”. His suppression of the principle musical development through time in favor of

juxtaposed fields of contrasting tone color was also used in visual arts of the same time

period. By the 1890’s, musical elements in paintings often went hand in hand with an

allegorical symbolism. In Gustav Klimt’s Music, a sphinx stands for the infallible nature

of music (Maur, K. 1999). Klimt also translated the hymn from Beethoven’s 9

Symphony “Fruede Schoner Gotterfunken Diesen Kuss der gazen Welt” into visual

allegory (Willsdon, 1996). Another example of allegory and imagery used to cross the

visual and the music world is the work of Mendelssohn. Mendelsshon used visual

imagery to express his music, including Hebrides and his Symphony Number 2, the

Italian (Grey, T. 1997).

In addition to allegorical and imagery representation, composers and painters

alike have frequently gleaned ideas from or borrowed from procedures in sibling arts.

The reciprocal relationship runs like a thread throughout the 19

and 20

century. Using

similar symbolic information is one example of this. Leitmotif has the status of symbol,

which is often subjected to patternization, variation, development or metamorphoses.

With the concept of patterns as a basis, it is possible to employ a visual pattern that is

symbolic of meaning that works in the same manner as the leitmotif (Goldberg &

Schrack, 1986). The romantics envisaged breaking down the barriers between the

various genres to create a Gesamtkunstwerk, a total, comprehensive, or what today would

be termed a multimedia or interdisciplinary work of art. In this, music was granted a

leading role (Maur, K. 1999). Phillip Otto Runge saw in music the common primordial

source of all the arts and a guarantor of beauty. He discovered the possibility of a

figurative painting, his Lesson of the Nightingale, on the basis of the fugal principle of

imitation.

Art in Music Education

Art is found in education, both within and outside the music classroom. Outside

the music classroom art has been used in courses such as English and History. Erickson

(1995) found that students in history classes were able to incorporate knowledge of

individual artists and develop a historical perspective as they looked at artworks. In each

of these examples, art is used to enhance the learning in other disciplines either as

allegorical, symbolic or direct representation. As in music, art is used in history texts to

reinforce time periods as well as to depict historical scenes and events.

Music educators often advocate a multi-sensory approach to learning,

particularly as a way of accommodating individual differences among learners. Using

multi-sensory approach brings excitement in learning of all subjects for both teachers as

well as students (Wang & Sogin, 1998,1998,1991). Music curriculum text books use art

to reinforce musical elements, addressing the needs of visual learners. Examples of

integration of art in music lessons are found in the most recent and popular texts

including Making Music (2002), Share the Music (1995) and Music Connection (1995).

In all three of these text series, art works are used to reinforce music concepts including

timbre, theme and variation, and musical imagery. At the secondary and collegiate level,

music history texts such as History of Western Music by K M. Stolba use art works to

emphasize historical period and to reinforce the relationship between the art and music of

a given time period.

Application of Gestalt Principles in Art and Music

Gestalt theory is a broadly interdisciplinary general theory which provides a

framework for a wide variety of psychological phenomena, processes, and applications.

Human beings are viewed as open systems in active interaction with their environment.

It is especially suited for the understanding of order and structure in psychological events

and has its origins in some orientations of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Ernst Mach, and

particularly of Christian von Ehrenfels and the research work of Max Wertheimer,

Wolfgang Köhler, Kurt Koffka, and Kurt Lewin (Gordon 1989). According to Keith

Swanick, Gestalt psychology is “the organization of sensory information into meaningful

wholes based on prior experience” (1988). The sensory information is then grouped by

one of four ways: Proximity, Similarity, Common Direction or Simplicity. These four

make up the following four laws: 1.) The law of proximity: Elements are grouped

according to nearness in space or time; 2.) The law of similarity: Objects or events are

grouped with “same” attributes, such as timbre, color or shape; 3.) The law of common

direction: Elements are grouped according to their extrapolated completion; 4.) The law

of simplicity: Information is grouped with a preference for smoothness, symmetry and

regularity (Radocy, R & Boyle, J., 1988). The principles of Gestalt provide the basis for

learners to discover the underlying nature of a topic or problem (i.e., the relationship

among the elements). Gaps, incongruities or disturbances are an important stimulus for

learning and instruction should be based upon the laws of organization: proximity,

closure, similarity and simplicity.

These four laws and principles of Gestalt are often applied in the visual realm or

to separate theories of visual perception. The visual realm in and out of art has relied on

the principles of Gestalt to support its work. Visual perception is the bedrock on which

many ideas inevitably build their foundation (Kepes, G. 1965). The use of imagery and

visual thinking processes are primary ways of exploring, expressing and communicating

the known and imagined properties of a system, theory or general phenomenon

(Arnheim, 1954, 1974). Visual ways of thinking and learning move across, between and

through disciplinary commitments. This connection through vision creates a kind of

convergence that defines contemporary views of interdisciplinary areas. Vision is a

natural connecting force that can reestablish relationships that have been obscured by

arbitrary divisions (Klein, 1990). The Gestalt principles of similarity, continuity,

proximity and closure are the primary factors and forces that create and emphasize visual

units, groupings and organized wholes within a given perceptual setting. The degree of

visual order or disorder perceived within a setting is dependent to a large degree on the

recognition, interpretation and communication of these unifying principles (Wenger,

1997). Gestalt is part of a language of vision present in the simplest forms of mark

making as well as the complex configurations found in a work of art. In art, a unified

entity or whole can be a singular composition or individual graphic elements that make

up the totality of a creative work.

Since both art and music can be analyzed by studying the underlying structure, the

Gestalt principles can be applied to both visual and auditory stimuli. Musicians have not

researched extensively the use of the principles of Gestalt with auditory stimuli, however

some studies do exist. As early as 1890, Ehrenfels introduced the concept of

Gestaltqualitat. This concept was explained using a musical example. “When we hear a

tune, the experience of the tune itself (the gestaltqualitat) is something more than the

aggregate of the notes. It is not reducible to individual notes and is not an adding

together of simple sensations. For example, the last three notes of ‘God Save the Queen’

are the same as the first three notes of ‘Three Blind Mice’.” (Gordon, 1989, p.55). Even

Leonard Meyer, who subscribes to the theory of an emotional response to music, argues

that the work of Gestalt Psychologists has shown beyond a doubt that understanding is

not a matter of perceiving single stimuli, or simple sound combinations in isolation, but is

rather a matter of grouping stimuli into patterns and relating these patterns to one another.

(1956, p. 6). Meyer goes on to explain that the mind in its selection and organization of

discrete stimuli into figures and groupings appears to obey certain general laws, including

the Law of Good Continuation. He points out that the general laws that the mind follows

to group items operates within a socio-cultural context. It can be inferred from this that

listeners use this Gestalt Law to listen to music that has characteristics that are

identifiable within a particular socio-cultural context. This would help to support why

people listen for the familiar before moving on to the unfamiliar.

In support of Contour, Dowling (1994) explains the role of Gestalt Principles in

contour. He states that a melody is very much an integrated whole, a Gestalt. He points

out that the tonal context affects memory for contour and that contour interacts with both

tonality and rhythm in perception and memory. In his Auditory Scene Analysis,

Bregman (1990) describes a range of perceptual processes that enable us to construct an

auditory picture of the environment and form sensory data much the way Dowling

suggests the listener deals with contour. Bregman identified two types of processes: a.)

primitive, automatic process and b.) Schema driven or learnt processes. The cues used

by the primitive processes to group sound events together to construct patterns are akin to

the Gestalt Laws of grouping. It has been shown that Gestalt Laws operate in the

perception of visual arrays and it can be said that it is true in of music also. In the case of

vision, elements that are close together in space are more likely to belong to the same

objects than are elements that are spaced further apart.

The same line of reasoning holds for elements that are similar rather than those

that are dissimilar (Deutsch, D. 1999). In the case of hearing, similar sounds are likely to

have originated from a common source and dissimilar sounds from different sources. A

sequence that changes smoothly in frequency is likely to have originated from a single

source, whereas an abrupt frequency transition may reflect the presence of a new source.

Components of a complex spectrum that arise in synchrony are likely to have emanated

from the same source, and the sudden addition of a new component may signal the

emergence of a new source (Deutsch, D. 1999 pp. 300-301). A sequence of musical

tones tends to be heard as groupings of organized metrical, rhythmic, melodic and

harmonic units. Smaller units are joined together to form larger units in an embedded,

hierarchical fashion. The tones are then grouped together according to function, and

other attributes. These groupings are then perceived as similar based on such things as

similarity in frequency, spatial location, or having temporally synchronous onsets or

offsets (Krumhansl, C. 1990). Royal and Fiske (2000) took these identified processes

and their relationship to Gestalt and suggested grouping boundaries along various

dimensions of sound based on the four Gestalt Laws. They suggest that boundaries

between groups are likely to be apparent where these laws are broken. Royal and Fiske

suggest that for each Gestalt Principle the musical concepts of pitch, time, timbre

loudness and space have a relationship. Pitch and proximity are apparent when there is a

change in register. Time has a relationship in similarity when there is a change in

articulation. The example in the table below uses pitch, time and duration, timbre,

loudness, and space to illustrate the boundaries and their association with each of the

gestalt laws.

Figure 2.4 Music and Association with Gestalt Laws.

Grouping boundaries along various dimensions of sound * contrary to:

*Proximity *Similarity *Good Continuation *Common Fate

Pitch change in register change in melodic contrary or

direction oblique

Time rests and long notes articulation change in pulse onsets and

offsets

Timbre change in timbre evolution of evolving

timbre over components

time of timbre

Loudness Changes in loudness unpredictable change differing rates/

and stress in loudness directions of

of loudness

Space spatially separate unpredictable moving in

Sources movement in space different

Directions/

Along diff.

Trajectories in

space

Koniari, Predazzer and Melen ( 2001) suggest that listeners are able to build a mental

representation of a piece but that mental representation does not keep all of the details of

the actual piece; instead listeners pick up and focus on specific cues, or cue abstraction.

(Referred to as cue extraction in Deliege, 1987, 1989; Deliege & El Ahmadi, 1990).

While listening to a piece of music, listeners pick up from the musical surface small

entities that contrast sufficiently to attract listeners’ attention. The cues provide temporal

landmarks: the passages based on a given cue are approximated and localized by the

listener in the course of the musical piece. Listeners are then assumed to be able to

reorder the different segments along a mental line resulting in a mental schema. Neisser

(1976, p. 54) states “A schema… is internal to the perceiver, modifiable by experience

and somehow specific to what is being perceived. The schema accepts information as it

becomes available at sensory surfaces and is changed by that information.” The cues also

constitute the basis of a categorization process. This categorization process then relies on

the categories of Gestalt to help listeners place information in a useable, retrievable place

within memory. The abstracted cues are the bases on which different structures of a

piece are compared to each other. All of this would suggest that the law of similarity can

be very effective given that listeners use cue abstraction to obtain musical information. If

students are encouraged to listen for and view examples of similarity during listening

lessons it is suggested that it will help during recall.

Memory and Listening

While the Gestalt Principles enable people’s perceptions of visual and auditory

stimuli, learning takes place only when the new information can be stored as memory in

the brain. The listener does not initially remember exactly what was heard but

remembers certain global features of overall pattern such as contour and key (Dowling,

1978; Dowling & Barrlet, 1981; Dewit and Crowder, Dowling Et el, 1995/1998;

Dowling, Tillman & Ayers 2002). Tulving (1983/1984) suggests a theory of episodic

memory where memory, while listening to music, stores traces of past events to recall

during a new listening experience. Both of these theories suggest that information that a

listener possesses on contour, rhythm and other musical elements will enable the listener

to remember salient features of the musical composition. Further, in this study, the

participant is asked to use inter-sensory memory systems. Research by Berlin (1976),

Goehr (1990), and Peeck (1987) suggests that music is an inter-sensory experience and

that auditory images in memory are often accompanied by kinesthetic and visual images.

This was further proven by Mitchell and Gallaher (2001) with studies of children, music

and memory of dance and visual image. Paivio (1986) suggests that memory involves

separate but interacting storage systems for verbal information and nonverbal images.

Pavio also suggests that verbal input alone is less likely to be stored in verbal and

nonverbal systems whereas visual information presented with verbal information is more

likely to be stored and retrieved. This information would indicate that the participants in

this study who are given more than one modality will be more likely to be successful in

remembering and recalling information than those participants who are only given one

modality.

An additional type of memory that is crucial for this study is recall or memory

over an amount of time. Recall is the ability to retain and reproduce information at a later

time. The amount of time between recall is the ability to retain and reproduce

information at a later time. The amount of time between obtaining information and when

it is recalled can be categorized under short or long term memory, depending on when it

is recalled. Short-term memory is also sometimes referred to as working memory.

Research suggests that within the brain, temporal oscillators provide the context that

serves as the basis for retrieval. Temporal oscillators are neural cell assemblies that fire

in regular cycles but with different oscillators cycling at different frequencies.

Oscillators therefore provide a rich signal that change continually over time (Mayberry,

et.al, 2002). Burgess and Hitch (1996) and Hitch et el. (1996) include temporal

oscillators as one of several features in models on short-term or working memory. In

these models, the current signal from a set of oscillators is associated with each item to be

remembered. Then, at recall, the oscillators are reset to the point they had occupied in

their cycles at the commencement of the recall. As the oscillators are replayed, their

changing signal then provides cues for the ability to recall (Mayberry, et al, 2002).

Memory is crucial for any listener. Without an ability to remember and recall the

listener is not capable of making choices about a presented piece of music, whether it be

the first time the listener hears the music or subsequent times.

Hypothesis

Based on the discussions above regarding the relationships of visual stimuli and strategies

used in listening, it is logical to assume that pointing out similarities in paintings may

assist elementary education majors to identify musical elements while listening to a

musical composition. For this research it is hypothesized that “Using paintings in music

listening lessons will enhance musical listening skills.”

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

Introduction

Elementary education majors at The University of Kentucky served as subjects

for this study. The university is a nationally ranked institution with over 28,000

students. The University offers over 50 Education related degrees and certificate

programs, with 1,452 students enrolled in the College of Education at the undergraduate

level. The College of Education has a diverse population including African American,

Native American, Asian and Hispanic Students. This school was selected for this study

on the basis of available subjects and access to classes appropriate to the study. The

treatment was administered during the second semester of Teaching Methods in the

Elementary Grades. The treatment took place in a music education research classroom

on the campus of the university. The classroom was set up for various music activities

and music education activities including listening, performance and movement. The

experimental group received instruction as well as viewing visually projected paintings

during the listening lesson. The control group received only instruction while listening to

music. Both groups received treatment by the same instructor and pre-tested and post-

tested using the same test. The data was analyzed to find whether or not the group

receiving integrated art and music lesson scored higher at the post-test.

Selection of Subjects

Four of the five sections of MUS 261- Teaching Methods in Elementary Grades

were chosen for participation in this study. Students enrolled in all sections of the class

without prior knowledge of the study. The chosen sections were informed verbally and

in writing at the beginning of the semester that they would be involved in the study.

Students meeting the following criteria were candidates for this study: (a.) elementary

education or special education majors (b) completion of Music for Elementary Education

Majors I, or proof of competency of concepts taught in that class (c) completion of all

parts of the study and (d) no excessive absences during the pre-test and post-test as well

as the duration of the study.

The subjects ranged in age from 20 to 36, with varied musical skills. Subjects

were polled at the beginning of the class for previous musical experience and previous art

appreciation courses they may have taken. Subjects ranged from students with very little

experience other than the first method’s class, to accomplished musicians with ten or

more years of playing or singing experience. Subjects also ranged from students that

have taken multiple art appreciation or art education classes to those students who have

had no formal art education. The four classes met on Mondays, Wednesdays and

Fridays for 50-minute sessions between the hours of 8:00am to 1:00pm and were taught

by a team of two instructors. Students in each class were randomly placed into the

experimental group or the control group creating eight subgroups. These eight subgroups

received instruction from both instructors with each instructor teaching different topics.

Research Design

The design for this study was a Pre-test Post-test Experimental Design with the

random assignment of subjects to either the control or experimental group from four

intact class groups of approximately 25 students each. Ninety-three subjects completed

the study with 46 subject in the control group and 47 subjects in the experimental group.

Figure 3.1 below shows the design and procedure for the study.

Figure 3.1: Research Study Design Model

Pretest

N=100 ( MUS 261)

TMLST

Treatment 1

Experimental

N=47

Listening lesson with call chart and

paintings

Treatment 2

Control

N=46

Listening lesson with call

chart only

Post Test

N=93

TMLST

Instrumentation

Teacher Music Listening Skills Test (TMLST)

The Teacher Music Listening Skills Test was designed by the researcher and was

used for both the pre-test and post-test. The content of the test aligns with the course

materials studied by the students. The purpose of the pre-test was to establish that the

subjects had knowledge of musical elements and vocabulary including expressive

elements and form types. The pre-test would also indicate whether the subjects were

homogeneous with regard to listening ability. The Teacher Music Listening Skills Test

(TMLST) took approximately 25 minutes and was administered prior to the beginning of

the treatment and immediately after the treatment. The test consisted of two parts.

TMLST-A had ten questions. Six of the questions were matching items and four were

multiple choice items with a maximum score of ten. Part A measured basic knowledge

and vocabulary about musical expressive elements and form. TMLST Part B is the main

section of the test, and it measures the listening skills of the subjects needed to identify

the musical elements in the musical excerpts. (See Appendix A). Musical excerpts were

1:00 to 1:12 long. The TMLST-B had one fill in the blank and seven items that were

multiple-choice with a maximum possible score of 64.

To establish validity of the test, a panel of six music experts took the test

independently. The music experts consisted of music educators, graduate students in

music education, and professional musicians. They agreed that responses to the test were

indicative of music listening skills and musical knowledge required for listening. The

reliability was tested by the use of interjudge reliability. Fifty percent of both the pre-test

and post-test of the TMLST taken by subjects were judged by another researcher to

calculate the interjudge reliability. The test was developed, revised and piloted over a

period of weeks using other students with similar backgrounds prior to this study which

prompted several changes to improve the instrument and administrative aspect of the test.

(See appendix H for the pilot study.)

The post-test was identical to the pre-test with the exception that the order of the

presentation of the musical excerpts was changed. For each excerpt, in addition to items

for listening skills, two items of self-rating scales were added. Students were asked to

rate the Familiarity of the piece on a scale of 1-7 and they were also to rate Preference,

how well they liked the piece, also on a scale of 1-7.

Procedure

Permission for using subjects in this study was obtained through the university

Office of Human Research Studies during the semester prior to the study. Students were

also informed in writing and verbally at the beginning of the semester that class work

would be used in an upcoming research study during the course of the semester. No

indication was made of exact assignments or units during the course of the semester. (See

Appendix C and D)

The pre-test was administered during the third week of the spring semester. The

Teacher Music Listening Skills Test was administered on Monday, the week prior to the

treatment. The test took 25 minutes to administer and was administered in the music

education resource room where all MUS 261 classes meet regularly on a Monday,

Wednesday, Friday schedule. The students took the pre-test at their regularly scheduled

class time with no differentiation between the control and treatment group. The test

included a practice excerpt so students could familiarize themselves with the test

procedure prior to taking the test items. Each student was given a copy of the

instructions and questions and a packet of answer sheets. Directions for the listening test

were read aloud and students were given a practice excerpt. The excerpt was played once

and students were to answer questions in Part B through question number seven.

Questions one through seven involved listening to general characteristics of the piece

such as instruments texture and rhythm. Then, for question number eight, a shorter

version of the same excerpt of eight to twelve seconds was played to highlight only the

main melody and the students were to select one of the given contours that matched the

melody. (See appendix A) After the practice excerpt and students were given a chance

to ask questions, the test was administered without pause. Students were asked to

complete, and given time to complete, Part A before moving on to the listening portion of

Part B. At the end of the eighth excerpt students were asked to double check that their

name and class section was on the answer sheet and then both the answer packet and the

question sheets were collected.

The class period after the tests were administered the students were randomly

assigned to either the control or experimental groups and students were to attend 25

minutes of the 50 minute class with the researcher and 25 minutes of the 50 minute class

with the second instructor who was presenting different material. Students were not

informed of the differences in the split classes, just that they were split and depending on

the group attended class with the researcher first or class with the other instructor first.

The preparation included planned instructional content and instructional

environment. In order to control for extraneous variables, the researcher delivered all of

the instruction for this study. Prior to the experimental treatment all subjects reviewed

music concepts and elements for listening. For the treatment, both the experimental and

control groups met in a “smart” classroom during the study. This classroom was

equipped with projection equipment and a computer in addition to the standard

equipment found in a classroom. The visual presentation of the paintings for the sections

receiving the treatment was projected onto a screen in the classroom using a projector

attached to the classroom computer and a PowerPoint slide presentation. The musical

examples for both the treatment and the control group were played from a single CD,

compiled and burned by the researcher, with each excerpt lasting between two and three

minutes. Salient information was written on a dry erase board, such as composer, title of

composition, contour shape, texture and instrumentation. Both the treatment and the

control groups met three times a week on a Monday, Wednesday, Friday schedule.

Classes met in the morning or early afternoon, depending on the class. No classes met

after 1:00pm in the afternoon.

A final preparatory measure concerned the possible cancellation of class due to

severe inclement weather. In that event, class would be cancelled for the duration of the

severe inclement weather and class would resume where it ended at the conclusion of the

severe weather. The class schedule would be modified to accommodate all of the

scheduled lessons for the treatment of the study. No lesson would be omitted from the

study.

Treatment

The treatment phase consisted of six teaching sessions within a span of two

weeks. The sessions were divided as follows: three sessions in week one and three

sessions in week two, following a Monday, Wednesday, Friday schedule. Each session

lasted a total of 25 minutes. Each session for both the treatment and control groups was

taught by the researcher. Each session was scripted (See Appendix E) so that both the

treatment and control groups were to receive identical instruction, with the exception of

the addition of the visual stimuli in the form of paintings projected in front of the class

via a PowerPoint presentation for the experimental group. The scripted lessons were

strictly adhered to by the researcher to ensure that lesson contents and delivery were

identical for each treatment session.

The same instructional strategy was followed in each session. Class began with

roll call followed by a brief introduction of the listening piece for that particular day. The

introduction included information regarding title, composer, and a general historical

background. Students listened to the musical excerpt a total of three times throughout

each session. The excerpt was first played after the general information was presented to

the class. Students were asked to just listen to the piece. After students listened to the

excerpt once, salient features were discussed such as instrumentation, contour, texture

and beat structure. The second time the piece was played students were instructed to

listen for the specific items discussed. After the second playing, students in the treatment

group that received paintings were shown projected images of the appropriate painting.

The salient features that most related to the music were pointed out and the music was

played a third and final time while the image remained projected for the students. The

control group heard the piece a third time without the presence of the paintings. There

were six musical examples all together, all instrumental, and all written for orchestra,

chamber orchestra or string quartet. Paintings were chosen based on several criteria

including the painting’s direct relationship to the piece of music or composer, musical

elements reflected in a visual way and the measured element of similarity apparent in

each work, and opinions of expert artists. In the treatment group, paintings were used as

a tool for analogy to stress what was illustrated in the lecture and on the dry erase board.

Music and Art Used in this Study

The music and art used in this study were chosen after careful consideration. The

musical pieces chosen for this study all had to meet certain strict criteria in order to

eliminate possible unforeseen musical effects. All pieces had to be instrumental and

performed by either full orchestra or string quartet. Each piece had to be usable when

two to three minute portions of excerpts were extracted, and still contain identifiable

melodies, harmonies and form structure that remained consistent throughout the piece.

Each musical piece had to have musical characteristics that were easily recognizable,

including clear instrumentation, texture and a clear melodic contour. Only musical

pieces from eras ranging from the baroque to early 20

century were considered. Pieces

associated with preconceived visual imagery or pieces that were traditionally labeled as

programmatic were not eligible. Pieces that had been used in mass marketing or

advertising were not eligible so as to prevent any preconceived association with imagery

or a particular product. Finally, musical pieces selected for this study needed to embody

the Gestalt Laws of Similarity as laid out by Christian Von Ehrenfels and reinforced

musically by Royal and Fiske (2002).

Following the above guidelines the following pieces were used in this research:

The Soldier’s Tale by Igor Stravinsky measures 1-36, recorded by the Los Angeles

Chamber Orchestra and conducted by Gerard Schwarz in 1984. A Night in the Tropics

the andante movement by Louise M. Gottschalk meausures 1-56, recorded by The Utah

Symphony Orchestra and conducted by Maurice Abravanel in 1986. Symphony No 9,

fourth movement by Ludwig von Beethoven measures 13-36, recorded by The London

Classical Players and conducted by Roger Norrington in 1987. Symphony No 94 in G

Major Andante movement by Franz Joseph Haydn measures 1-48, recorded by The

London Philharmonic Orchestra and conducted by Sir George Solti in 1984.

Contrapunctus 2 by J.S. Bach the entire piece, recorded by The Juilliard String Quartet in

1992. Valse Triste by Jean Sibelius measures 9- 56, recorded by The Estonian National

Symphony Orchestra and conducted by Paavo Jarvi in 2002. All recordings were

digitally copied from compact discs onto a single compact disc using I-Tunes® software

by Apple.

Figure 3.2: Music Chosen for this study

Title Composer

The Soldier’ Tale Igor Stravinsky

A Night in the Tropics Louis M. Gottschalk

Symphony #94 F.J. Haydn

Symphony #9 Ludwig von Beethoven

Contrapunctus #2 J. S. Bach

Valse Triste Jean Sibelius

Paintings chosen for this study fell into 2 distinct categories: paintings that were

directly related to a musical selection in some way as indicated by previous literature and

paintings that had a relationship with a musical selection in a general or causal manner.

For example; Beethoven Frieze: Hymn of Joy (detail) 1902 by Gustav Klimt was painted

as a direct visual representation of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony and specifically, the last

movement of the symphony. Sunday on the Island of La Grande Jatte 1884-1886, oil on

canvas by George Seurat has a casual relationship using the pointillism in the painting to

support the music of Maurice Gottschalk and his extensive use of staccato within A Night

in the Tropics. Paintings, regardless of category, were chosen based on a set of art

elements criteria that work well with the Gestalt Principle of Similarity and can be

applied. A panel of artists was asked to rank a pool of 15 paintings that fit these

parameters. The panel was comprised of four art professors and an art teacher. The

panel was asked to rank the paintings on a series of arts elements and how closely each

painting came to the Gestalt Principle of Similarity. The panel was asked to use a scale

of 1-10, to rate each painting with one being no similarity at all and 10 being extremely

similar. The elements that were focused on were color, form, shape, texture, balance,

pattern and rhythm. (See Appendix F and Appendix G). From the pool of 15 paintings,

eight paintings were considered to fit the criteria. The researcher chose six paintings that

scored the highest or received the most agreement by the art experts. From the eight

eligible paintings, six were chosen for this study. The paintings were: La Dance

1909/10, Oil canvas by Henri Matisse; Beethoven Frieze: Hymn of Joy (detail) 1902 by

Gustav Klimt; Fugue (Controlled Impression) 1914, oil on canvas by Wassily

Kandinsky; Fugue from the diptych Prelude and Fugue 1907, tempera on paper by

Mikalojus Konstantinas Ciurlionis; A Sunday on the Island of La Grande Jatte 1884-

1886, oil on canvas by George Seurat and Untitled 1932, oil on cardboard by Paul Klee

(See Appendix G).

Figure 3.3: Paintings Used in this Study

Painting Artist

La Dance Henri Matisse

Beethoven Frieze: Hymn of Joy Gustav Klimt

Fugue Wassily Kandinsky

Fugue M.K. Ciurlionis

Sunday on the Isle of La Grande Jatte G. Seurat

Untitled Paul Klee

Each painting and its related musical excerpt are listed below. The list of

paintings and music is displayed in two categories. Art and music with a direct

relationship for this study and art and music with an indirect relationship.

Figure 3.4 Art and Music Combined, Direct and Indirect Relationships

Directly Related Paintings and Music

Fugue by Ciurlionis Contrapunctus #2 by J. S. Bach

Beethoven Frieze by Klimt Symphony #9 by Beethoven

Fugue by Kandinsky Soldier’s Tale by Stravinsky

Indirectly Related Paintings and Music

Untitled by Paul Klee Valse Triste by Sibelius

Sunday on the Isle… by Seurat Night.. Tropics by Gottschalk

La Dance by Henri Matisse Symphony #94 byF.J. Haydn

The Teacher Music Listening Skills Test (TMLST) was administered as a post-

test during the class session that immediately followed the final treatment session. This

test was identical to the pre-test in content; however, the musical excerpts were presented

in a different order than in the pre-test. This was done in order to lessen the possibility, if

any, that students carry over what they remember from the pre-test instead of listening

anew. Using the same testing instrument for both pre-test and post-test allowed the

researcher to examine the amount of improvement in listening skills by the students and

minimizes extraneous variance due to different measuring tools.

The measure of reliability for the TMLST was obtained by having another

researcher score the tests independently. This independent judge was first trained to use

the grading criteria and the judge scored fifty percent of responses selected randomly

from all participants. The interjudge reliability was computed by Pearson r and was

found to be .89 (p<.001) for the pre-test and .93 (p<.001) for the post-test.

Apart from investigating whether the treatment had any effect on listening skills,

the researcher also wondered whether the treatment would make any difference in

students’ ability to recall musical information. A recall test was designed to collect data

for this secondary interest.

The second portion of the post-test, or the Recall Test, was administered 14 days

after the last day of treatment. The Recall Test was also designed by the researcher. The

test was designed to measure recall of salient musical features, visual imagery, as well as

title and composer information of pieces presented during the treatment sessions. The

Recall Test consisted of eight listening examples. Students were asked four questions

following each musical example. The musical examples chosen for the Recall Test

included four musical excerpts used during the treatment, two musical examples used as

detractors for the pre-test and post-test, and two musical excerpts that were completely

new. (See Appendix B)

The musical excerpts were played once each and students were given time to

answer the questions before the next excerpt was played. The measure of reliability for

the Recall Test was also obtained by having the same outside researcher score the tests

independently. The judge was trained to use the grading criteria and the judge scored

fifty percent of the responses selected randomly. The interjudge reliability was computed

by Pearson r and was found to be .86 (p>.001).

The procedure for this research was carried out with little problem.

Students adapted quickly and were very cooperative during the split classes. Students

had three minutes travel time between classrooms during the treatment and transition.

The use of equipment, recordings and the PowerPoint presentation also had no glitches or

problems to speak of. The overall time structure of the project was slightly affected by

inclement weather and the canceling of classes campus wide for a number of days. Due

to the campus closing and the inclement weather, the study was pushed back by one week

but no treatment sessions were changed or omitted because of this situation. The

research schedule was finished as planned.

There was some mortality in the study due to a variety of factors. At the onset of

the study 102 students took the pre-test. Ninety-three students completed the study in its

entirety. Students were lost during the study for the following reasons: Four students did

not attend at least five of the six research sessions or take the pre-test. Three students did

not take the post-test and could not schedule a make up time for the post test and one

student withdrew from the class during the study.

Other observations during the treatment sessions include the keeping of a journal

by the researcher. During the treatment portion of this study the researcher kept an

anecdotal journal of qualitative observations. Some observations indicative of the journal

included how students reacted during the viewing of the paintings in the case of the

experimental group and how students reacted to musical selections. A second

observation was obtaining demographic information about each of the study participants.

Since all of the students were enrolled in the same class, students were asked to

voluntarily fill out an information sheet with demographic information in it including

age, type of education prior to college, years of musical experience and what type of

musical experience if any it was. Students filled this sheet out the first day of classes in

the spring semester. The data was collected according to plan with good test reliability

and the statistics obtained from the pre-test and post-test are ready to be analyzed.

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

This study used a Pre-test Post-test Experimental design to measure the effects of

using paintings in the form of visually projected images to enhance music listening skills

of college education majors. The independent variable was the use of visual stimuli at

two levels, with or without the visually projected image of paintings. The dependent

variable was listening skills as indicated by the scores of the TMLST. The research

hypothesis “Using paintings in music listening lessons will enhance musical listening

skills,” was converted to the null hypothesis in order to test for statistical significance.

The null hypothesis for this research is, “Using paintings in music listening lessons has

no effect on musical listening skills.” The level of significance was set at .01. This

chapter will present preliminary descriptive statistics and the results of the statistical test

for significance for the hypothesis and related data.

The subjects’ demographic information is listed in Table 4.1. The subjects for

this study had a mean age of 21.3 years (sd=2.99). Ninety-seven percent of the students

were female and all were elementary music education majors at a major southern

university. The students had an average musical experience of 4.6 years with the

experience being evenly distributed between instrumental and choral music experience.

Musical experience included participating in ensembles at or above the high school level

or private lessons on an instrument or voice.

Table 4.1: Participant Demographic Information

Mean Age 21.3 years

Gender 97% female

3% male

Mean Musical Experience 4.6 years

_______________________________________

Results Related to Listening Skills

The testing instrument for this study was the Teacher Music Listening Skills Test

(TMLST) (see page 35). The test had a combined pre-test and post-test interjudge

reliability of .91 (p<.001). Table 4.2 shows the means and standard deviation on the Pre-

test for each of the eight subgroups created from the four sections used in the research.

Subgroup 1 had an n=12, a mean of 35.83 and an sd=6.25. Subgroup 2 had an n=12 with

a mean of 34.16 and an sd=6.17. Subgroup 3 had an n=8, a mean of 31.25 and an

sd=8.08. Subgroup 3 had the lowest number of subjects and the lowest mean score of the

eight subgroups because of absences within the study. As mentioned previously in this

study, several participants were not able to take the Pre-test or complete the study. Three

of these individuals came from Subgroup 3 and this is reflected in a lower mean score for

this subgroup. Subgroup 4 had an n=11, a mean of 32.27 and an sd=8.10. Subgroup 5

had an n=13, a mean of 36.69 and an sd=5.73. Subgroup 6 had an n=13, a mean of 37.90

and an sd=5.30. Subgroup 7 had an n=13, a mean of 34.76 and an sd=6.41. Subgroup 8

had an n=13, a mean of 35.30 and an sd=5.79. The pooled standard deviation was 6.45.

Table 4.2 Table of Means for TMLST Pre-test for Subgroups 1-8

(Max=78)

__________________________________________

Section Subgroup N Mean St. Dev

1 1 12 35.83 6.25

1 2 12 34.16 6.17

2 3 8 31.25 8.08

2 4 11 32.27 8.10

3 5 13 36.69 5.73

3 6 13 37.90 5.30

4 7 13 34.76 6.41

4 8 13 35.30 5.79

__________________________________________

In order to compare the TMLST pre-test scores for different subgroups, an

analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used. No statistical significance was found due to

splitting groups into subgroups.

Table 4.3 shows that creating eight subgroups did not yield any significant

difference on pre-test listening scores (F=1.18, df=7, 85). This means that these

subgroups were considered equal before the experimental treatment.

Table 4.3: ANOVA Summary of TMLST for Pre-test Subgroups 1-8

_______________________________________________

Source DF SS MS F Prob

Group 7 343.0 49.0 1.18 ns

Error 85 3535.8 41.6

Total 92 1878.7

________________________________________________

Table 4.4 shows the means and standard deviations for the pre-test scores of

TMLST of the original four classes. Section One had an n=23, a mean of 35.13 and

sd=6.24. Section Two had an n=20, a mean of 31.85 and sd=7.67. Section Three had an

n= 24, a mean of 37.25 and sd=5.45. Section Four had an n=26, a mean of 35.03 and

sd=5.99. The pooled standard deviation was 6.32. Table 4.5 shows that ANOVA results

for the four sections. There is no statistical significance among the four sections (F=2.67,

df=3, 89).

Table 4.4 Table of Means for TMLST Pre-test for Classes 1-4

________________________________________________

Section Subgroup N Mean St. Dev

1 1&2 23 35.13 6.24

2 3&4 20 31.85 7.67

3 5&6 24 37.25 5.45

4 7&8 26 35.03 5.99

________________________________________________

Table 4.5: ANOVA Summary of TMLST for Class Sections1-4

___________________________________________

Source DF SS MS F Prob

Group 3 320.1 106.7 2.67 ns

Error 89 3558.8 40.0

Total 92 3878.7

___________________________________________

Since no difference in the TMLST was found among the four class sections or the eight

subgroups, one can assume that the participants were homogeneous in listening skills

before the treatment. Further analysis would focus the two groups as designated control

and experimental groups. The experimental group was comprised of subgroups 1, 3, 5

and 7 and the control group was comprised of subgroups 2, 4, 6 and 8. The mean Pre-test

score of the control group and experimental group were 34.97 and 34.91 respectively.

Table 4.6, below shows the ANOVA summary for control and treatment groups. The

data shows that the two groups are very close to identical, with an f- value close to zero

of 0.00, df=1,91 for the TMLST Pre-test.

Table 4.6: ANOVA Summary for Pre-test

_________________________________________

Source DF SS MS F Prob

Group 1 0.1 0.1 0.00 ns

Error 91 3878.6 42.6

Total 92 3878.7

_________________________________________

The descriptive statistics for the TMLST Part A and Part B are listed below in table 4.7

and 4.8. The maximum score for the TMLST is 74 points. The maximum score for part

A was 10 points. For part A, the control group scored a mean of 6.02 (sd=1.74) on the

pre-test and 6.43 (sd=4.33) on the post test. The experimental group scored 6.02

(sd=1.72) on the pre-test and 6.80 (sd=4.33) on the post-test. For part B of the TMLST,

pre-test the control group scored an average of 28.96 (sd=5.64) and the experimental

group scored an average of 28.89 (sd=5.60). Both groups improved from the pre-test to

the post-test. The control group scored an average of 29.65 (sd=4.62) on the post-test and

the experimental group scored an average score of 40.00 (sd=5.74).

Table 4.7: Mean Values of TMLST Part A (Max. 10 points)

_________________________________________

Pre-test Post-test

_________________________________________

Control Group 6.02 6.43

N=46 (sd=1.74) (sd=4.33)

Experimental Group 6.02 6.80

N= 47 (sd=1.72) (sd=4.33)

__________________________________________

Table 4.8: Mean Values of TMLST Part B (Max. 64 points)

___________________________________________

Pre-test Post-test

___________________________________________

Control Group 28.96 29.65

N=46 (sd=5.64) (sd=4.62)

Experimental Group 28.89 40.00

N= 47 (sd=5.60) (sd=5.79)

__________________________________________

As it was mentioned in Chapter Three, Part A of the TMLST measured the basic

knowledge and terminology involved in music listening while Part B contained items

specifically designed for measuring skills listening to recorded music excerpts. The

composite scores were used to compare the performance of the control group and the

experimental group. The Paired t-test was used to find out if each group improved

significantly from the Pre-test to the Post-test.

Table 4.9 TMLST Means Showing Improvement from Pre-test to Post-test

___________________Pre-test Post-test t-value

Control Group 34.97 35.84 ns

N=46 (sd=6.55) (sd=5.81)

________________________________________________

Experimental Group 34.91 47.26 10.11*

N= 47 (sd=6.50) (sd=6.08)

________________________________________________

*p<.001

Table 4.10 shows the results of ANOVA for TMLST Post-test means of the experimental

and control groups. The numbers shows that there is a significant difference with the

Post-test part B for the control and experimental groups with an f value of 87.97, df=1,

91, p<.001.

Table 4.10: ANOVA Summary of TMLST Post-test for the Experimental and Control

Groups

_______________________________________________

Source DF SS MS F Prob

Group 1 3116.1 3116.1 87.97 .001

Error 91 3223.4 35.4

Total 92 6339.6

________________________________________________

Scores of the TMLST for students in both the control group and the treatment

group did show an increase in value. However, the control group did not have a

statistically significant gain from the pre-test scores to post-test scores. As shown in

Table 4.9 the control group had a Pre-test mean of 34.97 (sd=6.55) and a Post-test mean

of 35.84 (sd=5.81), with a t-value of .35 which is not significant. The Experimental

group, however, did show a statistically significant improvement. The Pre-test score was

34.91 (sd=6.50) and a post-test score of 47.26 (sd=6.08) with a t value of 10.11, p<.001.

See Table 4.9.

Table 4.11 shows the means and standard deviation for TMLST Post-test for

Subgroups 1-8. The mean scores are much higher for those subgroups that were part of

the experimental group. Subgroups 1, 3, 5, and 7 were part of the experimental group.

Table 4.11 Table of Means for TMLST Post-test for Subgroups 1-8

(Max=78)

__________________________________________

Section Subgroup N Mean St. Dev

1 1 12 50.00 7.28

1 2 12 36.09 4.45

2 3 8 48.33 4.61

2 4 11 35.91 6.86

3 5 13 46.85 5.80

3 6 13 36.91 3.00

4 7 13 45.00 6.18

4 8 13 35.01 4.71

______________________________________________

Table 4:12 TMLST Means Showing Improvement From Pre-test to Post-test by

Subgroups 1-8.

___________________Pre-test Post-test

Exp.Sub Group 1 35.83 50.00

N=12 (sd=6.25) (sd=7.28)

Exp. Sub Group 3 31.25 48.33

N=8 (sd=8.08) (sd=4.61)

Exp. Sub Group 5 36.69 46.85

N=13 (sd=5.73) (sd=5.80)

Exp. Sub Group 7 34.76 45.00

(sd=6.41) (sd=6.18)

________________________________________________

Cont. Sub Group 2 34.16 36.09

N=12 (sd=6.17) (sd=4.45)

Cont. Sub Group 4 32.27 35.91

N=11 (sd=8.10) (sd=6.86)

Cont. Sub Group 6 37.90 36.91

N=13 (sd=5.30) (sd=3.00)

Cont. Sub Group 8 35.30 35.01

(sd=5.79) (sd=4.71)

________________________________________________

Table 4.12 shows the improvement by students in the experimental group and the

control group. A t-test on the subgroup Post-test TMLST Means yielded a value of

t=9.64, df=6,p<.001. This further confirms that the post-test scores of the experimental

group are significantly different than those of the control group.

Results of Hypothesis Testing

The results of the data analysis up to this point indicate that students in the

experimental group scored 11.42 points higher than the control group, and the difference

is statistically significant. This test calls for the rejection of the null hypothesis that

“using paintings has no effect music listening skills” and an acceptance of the research

hypothesis “Using paintings in music listening lessons will enhance musical listening

skills.”

Secondary Results

Now that we know using images of paintings in music listening instruction

enhanced music listening skills, it would be interesting to compare the effect of the two

categories of paintings, namely paintings directly related to the music or paintings

indirectly related to the music. Directly-related painting and music refer to those pieces

that, as described in chapter three, have a direct relationship and were created to

compliment or represent the music. To do this the Post-test Part B listening scores of

TMLST were first partitioned by the painting category. There were eight musical

excerpts in the TMLST, three pieces in each category and two not part of the

instrumentation. Since only the experimental group’s students viewed the images only

their scores were examined. It was found (Table 4.13) that the type of painting/music

categories had no effect on listening scores.

Table 4.13 Means of TMLST Post-test per Excerpt Score for Each Category

_______________________________________________

Category of Painting/Music Post-test score t-test

Directly Related 5.20 (sd=.72)

1.19(ns)

Indirectly Related 4.85 (sd=.81)

Non-instructional 4.75 (sd=.83)

________________________________________________

In addition to examining the effect of visual stimuli in listening skill, its effect on

Familiarity and on Preference was also observed. Familiarity as well as Preference was

measured for each excerpt by having the participants rate each on a scale of one to seven.

Pre-test for the control group had a mean Preference score of 3.75 (sd=1.14) and the

experimental group had a mean score of 3.69 (sd=1.06). Table 4.14 shows the means and

standard deviation for Familiarity and Preference. The mean rating for Familiarity at the

Pre-test was 1.73 (sd=1.14) for the control group and 1.75 (sd= .89) for the Experimental

Group. There was growth between the pre-test and post-test in both the control and

experimental groups in both preference and more noticeably in familiarity. For

Preference, the scores increased .51 for the Control group and .86 for the Experimental

group. Since there was no further difference found neither in the Pre-test nor the Post-

test between the Experimental and the Control Group, for Preference or Familiarity, the

increase in Pre-Post scores would be due to the effect of the instruction rather than a

difference in treatment. Statistical analysis using a paired t-test indicates that there was a

statistical significant difference between the Pre-test and Post-test scores for both the

control and experimental groups for Preference as well as Familiarity. The score for

familiarity increased more dramatically. The control group went from a mean score of

1.73 (sd= 1.02) to a mean score of 4.42 (sd=1.19) and the experimental group went from

a mean score of 1.74 (sd=.89) to a mean score of 4.35 (sd=1.29).

Table 4.14: Mean Rating for Preference and Familiarity

(Max 7)

Preference Pre-test Post test t-test

Control 3.80 4.31 3.25*

(sd=1.23) (sd=.92)

Experimental 3.68 4.54 3.98**

(sd=1.06) (sd=.98)

Familiarity_______________________________________

Control 1.73 4.42 14.20**

(sd=1.02) (sd=1.12)

Experimental 1.74 4.35 11.01**

(sd=.89) (sd=1.29)

_________________________________________________

*p<.01 **p<.001

The Pearson r

was used to examine the relationship between various observations.

Results are shown in Table 4.15. The correlations indicate that all Music Test Scores are

positively correlated. The TMLST had a low correlation when comparing the composite

scores of Pre-test to the Post-test for all participants (r=.199). The Pre-test/Post-test

correlation for the control group (r=.489) is much higher than that for the experimental

group (r=.091). This is evidence that the scores of control group did not change much

whereas those from the experimental group did. The correlation coefficients for the

TMLST PartA/Part B were moderate, with r=.410 for the Pre-test and r=.532 for the Post-

test. These numbers give support to TMLST as a reliable measure. Familiarity and

Preference had a positive correlation both before (r=.384) and after the instruction

(r=.622) with the correlation after the instruction being higher. There were no other

significant correlations indicating that music listening skills per se are not related to

musical preference or familiarity with the music.

Table 4.15 Significant Correlations

_______________________________________________

Variables Pearson r

TMLST Pre-test and Post-test .199

Control Group .489**

Experimental Group .091

Pre-test Part A and Part B .410**

Post-test Part A and Part B .532**

Familiarity and Preference

Before Instruction .384**

After Instruction .622**

Familiarity and TMLST

Pre-test all Subjects .083

Post-test all Subjects .054

Preference and TMLST

Pre-test all Subjects -.09

Post-test all Subjects .216

Familiarity and TMLST

Post-test Control Group -.07

Post-test Experimental Group .20

______________________________________________

*p<.01, **p<.001

Finally, Recall was measured as a secondary question for this study. The Recall Test had

a possible score of 32 points. The Recall test did not show any significant difference

between the control and experimental group. The control group scored a mean of 14.4

(sd=1.86) and the experimental group scored a mean of 14.6 (sd=1.66). Recall was not

affected by either instrumentation or treatment.

Summary

Results of Hypothesis Testing

After analysis of all the data, the null hypothesis “Using paintings in music listening

lessons has no effect on musical listening skills” is rejected. The research hypothesis

“Using paintings in music listening lessons will enhance musical listening skills” is

accepted.

The findings may be summarized as follows.

1. Instruction that involves the use of visual stimuli results in a higher post-

test score on assessments of music listening skills.

2. Familiarity of musical excerpts is increased after instruction for both

groups.

3. Preference for musical excerpts is increased after instruction for both

groups.

4. The relationship of art to music does not have to be direct to result in higher

post-test scores.

CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION AND RECCOMENDATIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of visual stimuli on music

listening skills in pre-service elementary teachers. The research hypothesis that “Using

paintings in music listening lessons will enhance musical listening skills” was tested and

accepted. “Visual Stimuli” refers to the presentation of arts elements in selected

paintings in the form of projected images on a screen. Subjects were pre-service

elementary general educators enrolled in a large southern university (N=93). Students

from each of four intact classes were randomly placed into either the experimental group

or the control group. The treatment consisted of six music listening lessons over a two-

week period, each group receiving the identical teaching protocol with the exception of

the use of visually projected paintings for the experimental group. Listening instruction

emphasized the identification of melodic contour, instrumentation, texture, rhythm and

expressive elements of the compositions.

The Teacher Music Listening Skills Test (TMLST) was constructed by the

investigator, piloted and administered before and after the treatment. Pre-test data for the

eight subgroups showed no difference, and the observations were consequently examined

for differences between the control group and the experimental group only. The groups

were very similar in demographics. Years of musical experience per each participant was

evenly divided between the experimental and control groups making the experimental

group and the control group as equal as possible prior to the study. Results indicate that

the group receiving visual stimuli in the form of paintings scored significantly higher on

listening skills (p<.01) than the control group which received no visual stimuli.

Part A of the TMLST pertained to basic vocabulary related to music and showed no

change between groups from pre-test to post-test, with scores of 6.02 and 6.43

respectively for the control group and 6.02 and 6.80 for the experimental group. This

would indicate that neither the treatment nor the teaching affected Part A of the TMLST.

This was as expected. Scores for Part B of the TMLST pertain to the application of

listening skills and they showed a significant increase for the experimental group. The

experimental group went from a mean score of 28.89 to a mean score of 40.00 which

showed a significant gain in listening skills. This would indicate that the treatment of

using visually projected images of paintings in this study was effective in teaching

listening skills. The improvement by the treatment group was measured at a t value of

10.11<p.001 suggesting a significant improvement. This data would support that the

visual treatment was successful in teaching elements such as contour, main and auxiliary

instruments, rhythm and beat structure. Preference and Familiarity were not affected by

the treatment in this study but the data does suggest that Familiarity as well as preference

was affected by the instruction in both the control and treatment groups. The control

group had a Pre-test mean score of 3.80 and the experimental group had a Pre-test mean

score of 3.68. The Post-test scores increased to 4.48 and 4.43 respectively. In the

category of Familiarity, the increase was from a mean score of 1.73 for the control and

1.74 for the experimental to 4.42 and 4.35 respectively. This is a significant increase and

suggests that the instruction and just hearing the pieces numerous times throughout the

treatment helped the students become familiar with the pieces of music regardless of the

use of visual stimuli. The gain of Preference scores increased from Pre-test to Post-test

for each group also but at a smaller margin.

Correlations were run to examine the relationship between various observations.

Correlations were run between the Pre-test and Post-test of the TMLST as well as

Familiarity and Preference and how they correlated with the TMLST. All of the

correlations moved in a positive direction, which is important because it would indicate

the success of the TMLST and the relationship of Preference and Familiarity. The

correlation between Preference and Familiarity was not terribly high, but because it is

positive it could support research done by Siebenaler (1999). He found that there was a

strong correlation between familiarity and preference in students’ learning of new songs.

The same could be suggested here as students became more familiar with pieces that data

would suggest that the preference increased as well.

Although this study was well constructed and worked well with the population it

was studying there were some threats to validity that should be addressed. During the

course of the treatment there was a severe weather event. The university and city were

crippled with an ice storm that closed the university for a number of days requiring

treatment days to be extended to accommodate the time lost while the university was not

holding classes. This had the potential of adversely affecting the study by delaying the

time between presented excerpts and Post-testing, extending the time between the excerpt

presentation and the post test beyond what the original study had called for. There was

also some mortality during this study. Although the total sample for the study was

sufficient to show significant results that can be inferred to a larger population of pre-

service educators, a total of nine subjects were removed from the study for various

reasons mentioned previously in this text. In addition, there was some concern that

subjects in the control group would interact with those subjects in the experimental

group. Students in each group interacted with each other before and after each treatment

as they arrived and left from class. The researcher did not instruct the students that they

were not to discuss what was happening in each class session for fear that it would

heighten the subjects’ awareness that the treatments were different. When a student

asked if all students were hearing the same music or seeing the same paintings, they were

told that everyone in their group saw and heard the same thing. To reduce experimenter

effects, scripts were followed implicitly as mentioned earlier in research. Although none

of these threats to validity was overt enough to alter the results it is important to consider

what can be improved for similar future studies.

The current study attempted to address the need and importance for an aesthetic

education through listening. Broudy (1958) stated that the ability to detect aesthetic form

(the arrangement of elements that attracts, holds and directs the interests of the listener) is

at the heart of music education. This still holds true today and this study was designed to

direct the listener to identify elements that make up the aesthetic form by using, in the

case of the experimental group, a multi-sensory approach. Listeners were directed to use

visual images in the form of paintings. The results here are in agreement that students

were more successful identifying some of the elements needed to detect aesthetic form

after a treatment with a multi-sensory approach. Berleant (1991) argued for a

participatory aesthetic, emphasizing engagement and contemplation with participation.

The treatment in this study encouraged active engagement. Anecdotal reports were made

informally and showed evidence that students interacted with the music and art as well as

continued use of art and music after the end of the treatment implying that students were

actively engaged in listening. The Getty Foundation and the National Endowment for the

Arts stand by the position that arts education should include aesthetics as well as

performance and production. Developing successful listening lessons such as the ones

found in this study exposes students to the aesthetic element and would support the

position held by these two organizations. Students were given an opportunity to listen to

and study musical excerpts creating the opportunity to develop an aesthetic view of the

piece.

The findings in this study support the argument that people learn in a variety of

ways. Research by Park (2000) suggests that when teaching secondary education

students, multi-sensory instructional materials should be presented. The data of this

study would suggest that students, given multi-sensory instructional materials, are more

successful than those students who received instructional material aurally only. Students

given multi-sensory instruction using paintings scored higher on the TMLST than those

students who did not receive lessons in a multi-sensory way. This study also reinforces

work done by Kalyuga, Chandler and Sweller (2000) suggesting that the amount of

information being processed using both auditory and visual channels is significantly

larger than the amount of information processed using only a single channel. Previous

research has also suggested the importance of using an integrated approach to teaching by

engaging more than one of the senses. This was reinforced by this study with the

statistically significant scores by those subjects that were presented musical information

as well as visual stimuli utilizing the senses of both sight and hearing.

This study addressed the specific learning needs of the population participating in

the study. Students at the secondary and adult level have specific needs. The treatment

followed the need to be well managed with regard to time, relevant to the students in a

practical manner, intensive in material presentation and short in nature. It can be inferred

by the positive results of this study that the subjects responded well to the model

presented for teaching adults. Students were receptive to the material presented and as

shown by the data in the Pre-test and Post-test, the scores reflect the success of the model.

The subjects also responded as expected with regard to what they listened for. Studies

conducted by Madsen and Geringer (1990) suggested that non-musicians listen for

specific things such as instrumentation, timbre and rhythm. The current study supports

the research by Madsen and Geringer. Subjects did indeed listen for instrumentation,

timbre and rhythm accurately. Recall was also measured as secondary data collection.

The data did not show any difference between the control and experimental groups

suggesting that possibly the treatment or teaching did not affect recall of musical features

or names associated with this piece. The testing instrument for Recall here was designed

to observe the students’ ability to recall composer, composition and painting by using

open-ended questions in order to avoid giving cues. The responses suggest that such

open-ended questions failed to trigger the retrieval of the target information.

The research utilized the Gestalt Theory and more specifically the Gestalt Law of

Similarity as the basis. Gestalt theory is the “organization of sensory information into

meaningful whole based on experience” (Swanick, 1988). This study presented sensory

information in the form of visual and aural sensory stimuli via paintings and music.

Students were then guided to create a meaningful whole in the context of using listening

lessons and in the case of the experimental group with the addition of projected images of

paintings. Increased Post-test scores provided the clue that students were probably

successful in creating a meaningful whole. After the completion of the treatment,

students in both the control and experimental groups were able to answer questions

regarding an excerpt of music better than they could prior to the study, thus suggesting

that the musical excerpts had become meaningful for them. The degree of success is

reflected in the amount of improvement by each group indicating that the subjects in the

experimental group did much better. The indication is that using visual stimuli with aural

stimuli aided in making the musical excerpts more meaningful. The use of the Gestalt

Law of Similarity alone was to narrow the scope of the research to a manageable size

given time and class restraints. The Gestalt Law of Similarity was used successfully for

the selection of art and music pieces with elements that exemplify possible groupings

with similar attributes. The findings here suggest that the different manner of similarity

is not crucial. Paintings and music with a direct relationship or having a strong similarity

in characteristics scored the same as those art and music examples that had an indirect

relationship. This seems to imply that specific associations are not as important as

providing opportunities for increased sensory organization in proactive music listening

skills.

A secondary outcome of this study was made possible by the observations

collected in a journal kept by the researcher. During the course of the two weeks of

treatment the researcher kept a journal of qualitative notes for both the control and

treatment group. The journal was used to document things including how often students

offered their own insights or comments about the music and or the art work, how often

students asked questions regarding the art, music or the composer, and how interested the

subjects were in the music and in the case of the experimental group, the art work. After

examining the anecdotal information found in the journal it was discovered that the

subgroups participating in the experimental treatment were more vocal during class,

asked more questions during the presentation and used the correct vocabulary more often

when describing each of the elements when answering questions in class than the control

group. Students in the experimental group also showed a great deal of interest in the

paintings as a stand-alone item, asking questions about the artist, medium and time

period. Although this was not observed in the control group, it is important to note the

level of interest in the paintings the students in the experimental group exhibited. Lastly,

several students in the experimental group expressed motivation to use listening in their

future classrooms as an integrated activity. Several students in the experimental group

sought out information to integrate art and music for various projects in other

methodology classes outside of music.

There were also several observations of the study participants after the

conclusion of the two weeks of treatment. Students in the elementary music methods

class are required to complete and teach a listening lesson similar to the ones presented

during the treatment by the end of the semester. Students this year, regardless of

placement in the control or treatment groups, had better lesson presentations and a more

effective delivery than what has been observed in the same class in years passed.

Regardless of being assigned to control or experimental groups, students used correct

music vocabulary to describe the listening correctly more often and more accurately in

their own listening presentations. The listening lessons that students presented this year

were also very detailed. Students addressed what to listen for within the lesson and

students utilized multiple learning modalities to teach selected piece of music. Because

there is no hard data to support these observations, this data cannot be included in the

scope of this study, but I feel that it is important to mention the effect the study had on

other aspects of what the students were doing during over the course of the semester.

Recommendations for Further Research

There is a great deal still to be examined in the field of using art to teach aspects

of music. Art and music, although often associated, are rarely studied together or used as

a tool to teach skills in the other. Opportunities for further research include running this

same study using other Gestalt Laws to relate the art work and the music. This study

only considers the Gestalt Law of Similarity but there is a significant amount of data to

be collected using Proximity, Common Fate or Good Continuation to relate the art and

music to each other. Data from similar studies using proximity, common fate or good

continuation could add strength to the argument that the Gestalt Theory is effective in

relationship to music.

It would also be beneficial to examine these same effects on different learning

populations including school-aged children at different developmental levels, musicians

and the elderly. Using different populations with the same independent and dependent

variable could ultimately strengthen the argument for using multi-sensory modalities to

teach music, regardless of population or musical training. The measurement of recall did

not yield any useful information in this particular study, but the measurement of recall

using visual stimuli should be studied, especially within the parameters of recall in music.

The independent and dependent variable could also be manipulated to include other

music skills besides listening, and other forms of art work besides paintings. The results

of this study suggests that the art work presented does not have to directly relate to the

music to be effective; the same may also prove to be true with multiple mediums of art.

Finally this study could also be reversed and music could be used to help teach aspects of

an art lesson.

Implications for Educational Practice

As mentioned previously, overall students in both groups seemed to be much

more comfortable with the material that they were teaching during their assigned

listening lessons after the completion of the treatment than in previous years, and

research such as Kvet and Watkins (1993) showed that pre-service teachers who are

comfortable with material are more likely to use it in their future classroom than those

that are not comfortable with new concepts or curricula. This would suggest that the pre-

service teachers in this study might be more apt to integrate listening into their general

curricula in future classroom situations. This would support the importance of this study

with regard to teaching pre-service teachers.

The findings of this study confirmed previous research findings that the visual

stimuli or paintings do not have to have a strong similarity or direct relationship with the

music presented to enhance listening. The success of both the directly-related paintings

and the indirectly-related paintings would suggest that using images can be effective and

should be included in music lessons in future classrooms. Regardless of a direct or

indirect relationship with art and music, one of the concerns here apart form the aesthetic

value, was to ascertain that the art works used should be accessible to educators. The

pool of 15 paintings that the researcher began with was picked for accessibility, aesthetic

reaction and by educational content decided by the researcher. These paintings were then

ranked by professional artists and an examination of each painting’s history was

conducted. Paintings ranged from strongly related to not at all; from those paintings, six

high scoring paintings were used. The research shows that the treatment was successful

regardless of the ranking of the paintings with regard to similarity and relationship. The

researcher for this study did not have a great deal of training in art when she picked the

art work, which would suggest it is not crucial that there be a deep understanding of art to

accomplish this or similar studies. The key is to research its origin and obtain

information for each of the art pieces, and examine its relationship to the music that it

may accompany. With the readily available resources on the internet, art work is

accessible for any teacher, without the need for slides or access to an art museum. Basic

art knowledge can be gained from a variety of sources including art specialists, books and

websites and information on the origin and history of a painting is as easily accessible

from the same sources.

In conclusion, the present research confirms that using images of paintings can

enhance music listening skills in adults and should be included in teacher preparation

programs. Such effect on children needs to be researched in the near future. This study

is only near the beginning of what can be researched in the field of Gestalt and music and

using art in teaching music skills. It has reinforced both the relationship between Gestalt

and music and that of art and music listening. This study would serve as a catalyst in

developing more research that will strengthen the relationship between art and music in

teaching music skills. There is a great deal of research still to be done in both Gestalt and

music, and art and music.

APPENDIX A TMLST

PLEASE ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS. PLEASE GUESS IF YOU ARE NOT SURE

Part A- Matching

A-I Expressive Elements

Match the expressive element with its symbol. Circle the correct letter name on the

answer sheet.

1. Accent a. e.

2. Slur

3. Staccato b. f.

4. Decrescendo

5. Fermata c. g.

6. Repeat sign

d. h.

A-II Form

Match the Musical Form with its pattern. Circle the correct letter name on the answer

sheet. ( Questions 7-10)

7. Binary a. ABA

8. Rondo b. BBAB

9. Theme and Variation c. ABAB

10. Ternary d. ABACADA

e. A1A2A3A4

Part B- Listening

For each musical excerpt you are to listen to, study the answer sheet and answer the question

during the playing of the excerpt. Place all responses on the separate Answer Sheet.

a. Name the instrument or instruments playing the main melody.

b. Circle all other instrument or instruments you hear.

c. Identify the texture. Circle the appropriate type.

d. Choose an answer that best represents the piece.

i) What can you say about the rhythmic motive?

ii) What is the predominant group of beats?

iii) What is the predominant tempo?

iv) What is the overall articulation?

e. Study the following patterns and identify the contour that best represents the

main melody as part of the excerpt is played again

Circle the appropriate number on the answer sheet

f. On a scale of 1-7, how familiar

is the piece of music to you?

(1 being not at all, 7 being very familiar)

g. On a scale of 1-7 how well do you like the piece of music?

(1 being not at all, 7 being very much)

TMLST

Answer Sheet

Part A- Matching

A-I Expressive Elements

Match the expressive element with its symbol. Circle the correct letter name.

1. Accent a b c d e f g h

2. Slur a b c d e f g h

3. Staccato a b c d e f g h

4. Decrescendo a b c d e f g h

5. Fermata a b c d e f g h

6. Repeat Sign a b c d e f g h

A-II Form

Match the Musical Form with its pattern. Circle the correct letter name.

7. Binary a b c d e

8. Rondo a b c d e

9. Theme and

Variation a b c d e

10. Ternary a b c d e

Part B- Listening

Excerpt # 1

a. Main instrument (s)______________________________________________

b. Full Orchestra Strings Woodwinds Percussion

c. Circle only one: Homophonic Polyphonic Heterophonic Monophonic

d. Circle only one choice for each item:

Rhythm: i) even uneven syncopated Repetition of

Rhythmic motive

Grouping

Of beats: ii) Duple Triple Compound Irregular

Tempo: iii) Allegro Moderato Presto Largo

Articulation iv) Staccato Legato Pizzicato Marcato

e. Choose one contour:

i..) ii.)

f. Not Familiar at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very Familiar

g. Do Not Like at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Like Very Much

Part B- Listening

Excerpt #2

a. Main instrument (s)______________________________________________

b. Timpani Bassoon Piccolo Violin

c. Circle only one: Homophonic Polyphonic Heterophonic Monophonic

d. Circle only one choice for each item:

Rhythm: i) even uneven syncopated Repetition of

Rhythmic motive

Grouping

Of beats: ii) Duple Triple Compound Irregular

Tempo: iii) Allegro Moderato Presto Largo

Articulation iv) Staccato Legato Pizzicato Marcato

e. Choose one contour:

i.). ii.)

f. Not Familiar at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very Familiar

g. Do Not Like at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Like Very Much

Part B- Listening

Excerpt #3

a. Main Instrument (s)______________________________________________

b. Woodwinds Full Orchestra Tambourine Clarinet

c. Circle only one: Homophonic Polyphonic Heterophonic Monophonic

d. Circle only one choice for each item:

Rhythm: i) even uneven syncopated Repetition of

Rhythmic motive

Grouping

Of beats: ii) Duple Triple Compound Irregular

Tempo: iii) Allegro Moderato Presto Largo

Articulation iv) Staccato Legato Pizzicato Marcato

e. Choose one contour:

i.). ii.)

f. Not Familiar at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very Familiar

g. Do Not Like at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Like Very Much

Part B- Listening

Excerpt #4

a. Main instrument (s)______________________________________________

b. Rhythm Instruments Piano Low brass Clarinet

c. Circle only one: Homophonic Polyphonic Heterophonic Monophonic

d. Circle only one choice for each item:

Rhythm: i) even uneven syncopated Repetition of

Rhythmic motive

Grouping

Of beats: ii) Duple Triple Compound Irregular

Tempo: iii) Allegro Moderato Presto Largo

Articulation iv) Staccato Legato Pizzicato Marcato

e. Choose one contour:

i.). ii.)

f. Not Familiar at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very Familiar

g. Do Not Like at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Like Very Much

Part B- Listening

Excerpt #5

a. Main instrument (s)______________________________________________

b. Flute Trumpet Strings Bass drum

c. Circle only one: Homophonic Polyphonic Heterophonic Monophonic

d. Circle only one choice for each item:

Rhythm: i) even uneven syncopated Repetition of

Rhythmic motive

Grouping

Of beats: ii) Duple Triple Compound Irregular

Tempo: iii) Allegro Moderato Presto Largo

Articulation iv) Staccato Legato Pizzicato Marcato

e. Choose one contour:

i.). ii.)

f. Not Familiar at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very Familiar

g. Do Not Like at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Like Very Much

Part B- Listening

Excerpt #6

a. Main instrument (s)______________________________________________

b. Percussion Horn Oboe Brass

c. Circle only one: Homophonic Polyphonic Heterophonic Monophonic

d. Circle only one choice for each item:

Rhythm: i) even uneven syncopated Repetition of

Rhythmic motive

Grouping

Of beats: ii) Duple Triple Compound Irregular

Tempo: iii) Allegro Moderato Presto Largo

Articulation iv) Staccato Legato Pizzicato Marcato

e. Choose one contour:

i.). ii.)

f. Not Familiar at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very Familiar

g. Do Not Like at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Like Very Much

Part B- Listening

Excerpt #7

a. Main instrument (s)______________________________________________

b. Full Orchestra Rhythm Instruments Bassoon Horn

c. Circle only one: Homophonic Polyphonic Heterophonic Monophonic

d. Circle only one choice for each item:

Rhythm: i) even uneven syncopated Repetition of

Rhythmic motive

Grouping

Of beats: ii) Duple Triple Compound Irregular

Tempo: iii) Allegro Moderato Presto Largo

Articulation iv) Staccato Legato Pizzicato Marcato

e. Choose one contour:

i.). ii.)

f. Not Familiar at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very Familiar

g. Do Not Like at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Like Very Much

Part B- Listening

Excerpt #8

a. Main instrument (s)______________________________________________

b. Woodwinds Percussion Full Orchestra Brass

c. Circle only one: Homophonic Polyphonic Heterophonic Monophonic

d. Circle only one choice for each item:

Rhythm: i) even uneven syncopated Repetition of

Rhythmic motive

Grouping

Of beats: ii) Duple Triple Compound Irregular

Tempo: iii) Allegro Moderato Presto Largo

Articulation iv) Staccato Legato Pizzicato Marcato

e. Choose one contour:

i.). ii.)

f. Not Familiar at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very Familiar

g. Do Not Like at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Like Very Much

APPENDIX B- Recall Test

Name _________________________

Section________________________

This exercise is to assess your ability to identify musical elements from listening to music.

Your careful responses will provide me with the feedback about the unit on listening.

Instruction: You will hear several excerpts of musical composition. After listening to each musical

excerpt, please answer the questions to the best of your ability. You will be given time after each

excerpt to write your answers. The excerpts will be played only once.

In your opinion, how do you feel about the listening unit? (choose one response and circle)

• I would like more lessons in music listening

• I think I learned enough for now

• I think the listening unit is too long

Excerpt #1

1. Have you ever heard the piece before? ( circle yes or no below)

YES NO

2. Describe this piece as best as you can. Use what you have learned during the

listening lessons; include the usage of as many musical elements as possible.

o Title (if known)____________________________________________

o Composer (if known)________________________________________

o Musical elements _______________________________________

o ________________________________________________________

o _________________________________________________________

o ________________________________________________________

3. What Visual image comes to mind as you listen to this piece?

____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

Excerpt #2

4. Have you ever heard the piece before? ( circle yes or no below)

YES NO

5. Describe this piece as best as you can. Use what you have learned during the

listening lessons; include the usage of as many musical elements as possible.

o Title (if known)____________________________________________

o Composer (if known)________________________________________

o Musical elements _______________________________________

o ________________________________________________________

o _________________________________________________________

6. What Visual image comes to mind as you listen to this piece?

____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

Excerpt #3

7. Have you ever heard the piece before? ( circle yes or no below)

YES NO

8. Describe this piece as best as you can. Use what you have learned during the

listening lessons; include the usage of as many musical elements as possible.

o Title (if known)____________________________________________

o Composer (if known)________________________________________

o Musical elements _______________________________________

o ________________________________________________________

o _________________________________________________________

o ________________________________________________________

9. What Visual image comes to mind as you listen to this piece?

____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

Excerpt #4

10. Have you ever heard the piece before? ( circle yes or no below)

YES NO

11. Describe this piece as best as you can. Use what you have learned during the

listening lessons; include the usage of as many musical elements as possible.

o Title (if known)____________________________________________

o Composer (if known)________________________________________

o Musical elements _______________________________________

o ________________________________________________________

o _________________________________________________________

o ________________________________________________________

12. What Visual image comes to mind as you listen to this piece?

____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

Excerpt #5

13. Have you ever heard the piece before? ( circle yes or no below)

YES NO

14. Describe this piece as best as you can. Use what you have learned during the

listening lessons; include the usage of as many musical elements as possible.

o Title (if known)____________________________________________

o Composer (if known)________________________________________

o Musical elements _______________________________________

o ________________________________________________________

o _________________________________________________________

o ________________________________________________________

15. What Visual image comes to mind as you listen to this piece?

____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

Excerpt #6

16. Have you ever heard the piece before? ( circle yes or no below)

YES NO

17. Describe this piece as best as you can. Use what you have learned during the

listening lessons; include the usage of as many musical elements as possible.

o Title (if known)____________________________________________

o Composer (if known)________________________________________

o Musical elements _______________________________________

o ________________________________________________________

o _________________________________________________________

o ________________________________________________________

18. What Visual image comes to mind as you listen to this piece?

____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

Excerpt #7

19. Have you ever heard the piece before? ( circle yes or no below)

YES NO

20. Describe this piece as best as you can. Use what you have learned during the

listening lessons; include the usage of as many musical elements as possible.

o Title (if known)____________________________________________

o Composer (if known)________________________________________

o Musical elements _______________________________________

o ________________________________________________________

o _________________________________________________________

o ________________________________________________________

21. What Visual image comes to mind as you listen to this piece?

____________________________________________________________

Excerpt #8

22. Have you ever heard the piece before? ( circle yes or no below)

YES NO

23. Describe this piece as best as you can. Use what you have learned during the

listening lessons; include the usage of as many musical elements as possible.

o Title (if known)____________________________________________

o Composer (if known)________________________________________

o Musical elements _______________________________________

o ________________________________________________________

o _________________________________________________________

o ________________________________________________________

24. What Visual image comes to mind as you listen to this piece?

____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

APPENDIX C - Permission

I understand that in taking this MUS 261 course, some of the regular work and

assignments will be used as data for a research study related to a dissertation on effective

teaching techniques. My grades will not be affected in any way and my name will not be

mentioned anywhere. If I have any concerns or reservations I will contact my instructor

as soon as possible.

Signed__________________________________________

Date____________________________________________

APPENDIX D

APPENDIX E-Sample Listening Lesson Scripts

Goal: To enhance listening by using musical elements and in the case of the experimental

group, to enforce listening.

Objective: Students will be able to identify and recognize salient musical elements that

will assist in the identification and categorization of musical excerpts.

Lesson will run 25 minutes:

Attendance and class announcement are to be made at the beginning of each treatment

and are not to exceed 3 minutes.

• The Musical excerpt is introduced by writing the title and composer’s name on

the dry wipe board.

• Title of composition is read out loud and the composers name is read out loud.

Birth and Death dates are given for the composer to give context to a time frame

for the composition.

• Events happening at the same time in history are pointed out, Beethoven, and the

French revolution, American Revolution etc.

• Biographical information about the composer is presented verbally, with no

visual cues or prompts. Ex: Beethoven became deaf and was not a product of a

patronage system.

• The Composition is introduced in context to the composer’s life, when it was

written, why, and how long it took.

• Excerpt of the composition is played in it’s entirety without further discussion.

Students are not asked to listen to any salient musical elements in particular.

• After the piece is listened to once, a list of seven musical elements is written on

the board below the Composer and Composition title. The seven elements are:

1. Main Instrument or instruments

2. Auxiliary instruments

3. Contour

4. Rhythm

5. Beat Structure

6. Texture

7. Articulation

• These elements are written in this order on the board. Students are invited to

comment on each element offering their opinion and insight as to what they

heard on the first time they have heard the piece.

• After students have been asked to fill in the blanks without prompting, the

instructor asks pointed questions to guide the listeners to what they heard.

• The piece is played a second time, with interjections where necessary to point

out each element listed on the board as it becomes clear.

• After the second time the piece is heard students are asked to contribute to the

list in any further way they would like to.

• After listening to the piece a second time, in the case of the experimental

group a painting assigned to the excerpt was projected in front of the students

and where applicable portions of the painting was used to reinforce salient

musical elements. For example, in Gottschalk and Suerat, the style of

painting or pointillism reinforces the articulation of the piece.

• Students were invited to ask any questions about the excerpt, and in the case

of the experimental group, the paintings.

• The piece of music was played a third and final time without discussion or

interruption for both groups.

• Class was dismissed.

APPENDIX F- Concepts Taught During Listening Lessons.

Lesson One-

A Night in the Tropics by L. Gottschalk. The painting used is Sunday on the Island of La

Grande Jatte by G. Suerat.

Elements to be discussed:

1. Main Instrument or Instruments

2. Auxiliary Instruments

3. Rhythm

4. Beat Structure

5. Texture

6. Articulation

7. Contour

Dominant art elements present in the painting and associated with musical elements.

1. Articulation- associated with the style of painting called pointillism.

2. Contour- associated with the form and how the eye travels from one element

to the next returning to the beginning. The contour is repetitive and returns to

the beginning of the excerpt.

3. Texture- associated with the alternating use of light and dark areas of the

painting with the thick and thinly orchestrated sections of the musical excerpt.

Lesson Two-

Soldier’s Tale by Stravinsky. The painting to be used is Fugue by W. Kandinsky.

Elements to be discussed:

1. Main Instrument or Instruments

2. Auxiliary Instruments

3. Rhythm

4. Beat Structure

5. Texture

6. Articulation

7. Contour

Dominant art elements present in the painting and associated with musical elements.

1. Instrumentation, Main and Auxiliary- the association of specific instruments

both carrying the main melody and in auxiliary roles and the use of color for

the representation of each instrument timbre.

2. Texture- The association of the placement of color upon color in association

with the blending of timbres.

Lesson Three-

Contrupunctus #2 by J.S. Bach. The painting used was Fugue by Ciurlionis.

Elements to be discussed:

1. Main Instrument or Instruments

2. Auxiliary Instruments

3. Rhythm

4. Beat Structure

5. Texture

6. Articulation

7. Contour

Dominant art elements present in the painting and associated with musical elements.

1. Contour- The shapes of the pine trees represent the shape of this melody.

2. Texture- The painting is a direct representation of the texture of a fugue

3. Instruments, Main and Auxiliary. - The painting represents the entrances of

each of the instruments in the fugue and the shape of the fugue with its use of

altered subjects.

Lesson Four-

Symphony #9 the fifth movement by L. von Beethoven. The painting used was Beethoven

Frieze by Klimt.

Elements to be discussed:

1. Main Instrument or Instruments

2. Auxiliary Instruments

3. Rhythm

4. Beat Structure

5. Texture

6. Articulation

7. Contour

Dominant art elements present in the painting and associated with musical elements.

1. The overall painting was Klimt interpretation of this particular musical

excerpt.

2. Texture- Represented in the color and spacing used in the painting

3. Contour- The shapes used in the painting represents the contour of the main

melody.

Lesson Five-

Symphony #94 Movement 2 by Haydn. The painting used was La Dance by Henri

Matisse.

Elements to be discussed:

1. Main Instrument or Instruments

2. Auxiliary Instruments

3. Rhythm

4. Beat Structure

5. Texture

6. Articulation

7. Contour

Dominant art elements present in the painting and associated with musical elements.

1. Contour- The shapes of Matisse are simple and can be associated with the

simple lines of the Matisse images of dancing individuals.

2. Articulation- The articulation of the piece of music is clean with no

ambiguities; the images in the paintings along with the color convey the same

idea.

3. Beat Structure- The beat structure of the music is straight forward with no

unusual differences and can be represented by the construction of the images

in the painting.

Lesson Six-

Valse Triste by Sibelius. The painting used is Untitled by Paul Klee.

Elements to be discussed:

1. Main Instrument or Instruments

2. Auxiliary Instruments

3. Rhythm

4. Beat Structure

5. Texture

6. Articulation

7. Contour

Dominant art elements present in the painting and associated with musical elements.

1. Texture- The excerpt has a very dense texture with multiple timbres being

sounded at the same time. The painting can be associated with the dense

musical texture by the very dense imagery and use of colors in the painting.

2. Beat Structure- The excerpt has an indeterminate beat structure and the

painting conveys an indeterminate imagery.

APPENDIX G- Art Survey

Dear Professor/Artist.

I, Jennifer Shank, appreciate your willingness to help as an expert judge regarding some

art works. I am working on my dissertation that researches the use of painting as a

catalyst to learn about music composition. Specifically, I hope that pointing out

similarities in painting might stimulate listeners to listen for similarities in music. Your

expertise will enable me to select art works that are good examples of containing

“similarity” within the artwork itself.

According to the Gestalt principles, the definition of Similarity is that “Items similar in

some respect tend to be grouped together”. In the case of painting, I’d like to have your

opinion about the extent of similarity for each of the art elements or principles in a

specific painting.

Enclosed you will find a CD rom with slides of 11 art works. Please use the enclosed

rating sheets to rate each of the art works presented. When you have finished please

return the packet to either Dr. Cecilia Wang’s mailbox or mine in room 105 of the fine

arts building. Thank you in advance for your time and effort.

Sincerely,

Jennifer Shank

Please rate each of the following paintings on similarity for each of the following artistic

elements and principles in the scale of 1-10.

Please feel free to comment or explain your rating if you wish.

1 denotes No Similarity

10 denotes Very Strong Evidence of Similarity

Painting # Slide # Comments

Color

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Form

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Shape

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Texture

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Balance

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Pattern

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Rhythm

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Thank you very much!!

APPENDIX H- Pilot Study

Pilot Study

Prior to the beginning of this study, a pilot study was run to test the feasibility of

the research and the researcher-created pretest and posttests. The pilot was run with

music education majors and non-musicians from a nearby university, and non music

majors in a music appreciation class at this university. The pilot study was run over a

course of 5 days with one day for the pretest and the first day of treatment, a second day

of treatment, and the music knowledge portion of the posttest on the third meeting. The

results, although not significant, did suggest that the use of visual stimuli in the form of

paintings could enhance musical knowledge in the areas of texture and instrumentation,

melodic contour and form.

Subjects

The subjects for the pilot study were students enrolled in music appreciation

classes and elementary and middle school education methods classes at Campbellsville

University, as well as students enrolled in a music appreciation class at the University of

Kentucky. Both music appreciation classes and elementary education methods classes

were used due to class size and class availability. Students in all of the classes used were

untrained, or non-musicians. The total population for the study was n=86. Classes were

randomly assigned to the control or treatment groups.

Procedure

The pretest was administered prior to the treatment session during the first

meeting. The pretest took approximately 15 minutes to administer. After the pretest, the

treatment was administered. For this study, the treatment was 25 minutes long and one

excerpt was presented each treatment. each session. Excerpts were first presented by

introducing the piece with pertinent composer information and the title. The excerpt was

then played once for the subjects without interruption and without instructions to listen

for specific elements. Students then received approximately 10 minutes of lecture with

the use of call charts and, in the case of the experimental group, paintings to reinforce the

musical concepts being covered. During the lecture portion of the treatment, portions of

the excerpt were played to reinforce specific points. Students in both the control and

experimental groups were given identical information with the exception of the paintings

for the experimental group. The students then heard the excerpt in its entirety two more

times in succession. The first time the researcher pointed out features as the music was

played. The second time, the music was played without interruption or discussion. For

each excerpt, instrumentation was discussed. Depending on the strength of melodic

contour texture, or form within the excerpt, those concepts were featured as well. For

excerpt one and melodic contour and texture was stressed as well as instrumentation. For

excerpt three and four, form was stressed along with instrumentation. Excerpts one and

two were presented on treatment day one and excerpts three and four were presented

during treatment day two.

The posttest was administered on a subsequent class meeting after all four

excerpts were presented. Students were aware there would be a posttest but were not

asked to prepare for it in any particular way.

Music and Artwork Used in Pilot Study

The music and artwork chosen for the pilot study were from selections being

considered for the research study. All of the music was instrumental in nature, with

similar instrumentation. Excerpts were purposely chosen to not be immediately

recognizable and each excerpt was no longer than three minutes long. The following

excerpts were used: 1. Symphony No.4 in A Major, Opus 90 “Italian” Movement 2

Andante Con moto by Felix Mendelssohn. 2. Symphony, “A Night in the Tropics”

Movement One, Andante by Louise Moreau Gottschalk. 3. “The Soldier’s Tale” The

Soldiers March by Igor Stravinsky. 4. Symphony No.2, Opus 43 in D Major, Movement

One, Allegretto by Jean Sibelius. Music was chosen based on instrumentation and the

music’s association with visual art or stimuli. The artwork chosen for the experimental

group was chosen after consulting art faculty and measuring the element of similarity

apparent in each work. Paintings used included works by George Suerat, Mendelssohn,

Kandinsky, and Goya.

Pretest and Posttest

The pretest and posttest were researcher-created and designed to measure musical

knowledge and preference. It is important to note that the posttest was revised several

times and administered a second time after flaws were found in the first test design. The

post test was given with familiar excerpts and unfamiliar excerpts with a total of five

excerpts in all. Both the pretest and posttest had a possible score of 25 points.

PILOT PRETEST AND POSTTEST

Part A- Matching

A-I Expressive Elements

Match the expressive element with its symbol. Circle the correct letter name on the

answer sheet.

10. Accent a.

11. Slur b.

12. staccato c.

13. decrescendo d.

14. fermata e.

15. repeat sign f

A-II Form

Match the Musical Form with its pattern. Circle the correct letter name on the answer

sheet. ( Questions 7-10)

16. Binary a. ABA

17. Rondo b. BBAB

18. Theme and Variation c. ABAB

10. Ternary d. ABACADA

e. A1A2A3A4

Part B- Listening

For each musical excerpt you are to listen, place all responses on the separate Answer Sheet.

h. Name the instrument or instruments playing the main melody.

i. Name another instrument or instruments you hear.

j. Identify the texture. Circle the appropriate type.

k. Choose an answer that best represents the piece.

i) What can you say about the rhythm?

ii) What is the predominant meter?

iii) What is the predominant tempo?

iv) What is the predominant articulation?

v) What is the overall dynamic level?

l. Study the following patterns and identify the contour that best represents the

main melody as part of the excerpt is played again.

Circle the appropriate number on the answer sheet

m. On a scale of 1-7, how familiar is the piece of music to you?

(1 being not at all, 7 being very familiar)

n. On a scale of 1-7 how well do you like the piece of music?

(1 being not at all, 7 being very much)

Name_________________________

Mus 100, Section_________

Date__________________________

Answer Sheet

Part A- Matching

A-I Expressive Elements

Match the expressive element with its symbol. Circle the correct letter name.

Accent 1. a b c d e f g h

Slur 2. a b c d e f g h

Staccato 3. a b c d e f g h

Decrescendo 4. a b c d e f g h

Fermata 5. a b c d e f g h

Repeat Sign 6. a b c d e f g h

A-II Form

Match the Musical Form with its pattern. Circle the correct letter name.

Binary 7. a b c d e

Rondo 8. a b c d e

Theme and

Variation 9. a b c d e

Ternary 10. a b c d e

Part B- Listening

Excerpt #1

a. Main instrument (s)______________________________________________

b. Other instrument(s)______________________________________________

c. Circle only one: Homophonic Polyphonic Heterophonic Monophonic

d. Circle only one choice for each item:

i) even uneven syncopated lots of repetition

ii) 2/4 3/4 4/4 6/8

iii) Allegro Moderato Presto Largo

iv) Staccato Legato Pizzicato Marcato

v) pp f mp ff

e. Choose one contour:

i..) ii.)

f. Not Familiar at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very Familiar

g. Do Not Like at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Like Very Much

Part B- Listening

Excerpt #2

a. Main instrument (s)______________________________________________

b. Other instrument(s)________________________________________________

c. Circle only one: Homophonic Polyphonic Heterophonic Monophonic

d. Circle only one choice for each item:

i) even uneven syncopated lots of repetition

ii) 2/4 3/4 4/4 6/8

iii) Allegro Moderato Presto Largo

iv) Staccato Legato Pizzicato Marcato

v) pp f mp ff

e. Choose one contour:

i.). ii.)

f. Not Familiar at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very Familiar

g. Do Not Like at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Like Very Much

100

Part B- Listening

Excerpt #3

a. Main Instrument (s)______________________________________________

b. Other instrument(s)________________________________________________

c. Circle only one: Homophonic Polyphonic Heterophonic Monophonic

d. Circle only one choice for each item:

i) even uneven syncopated lots of repetition

ii) 2/4 3/4 4/4 6/8

iii) Allegro Moderato Presto Largo

iv) Staccato Legato Pizzicato Marcato

v) pp f mp ff

e. Choose one contour:

i.). ii.)

f. Not Familiar at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very Familiar

g. Do Not Like at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Like Very Much

101

Part B- Listening

Excerpt #4

a. Main instrument (s)______________________________________________

b. Other instruments(s)________________________________________________

c. Circle only one: Homophonic Polyphonic Heterophonic Monophonic

d. Circle only one choice for each item:

i) even uneven syncopated lots of repetition

ii) 2/4 3/4 4/4 6/8

iii) Allegro Moderato Presto Largo

iv) Staccato Legato Pizzicato Marcato

v) pp f mp ff

e. Choose one contour:

i.). ii.)

f. Not Familiar at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very Familiar

g. Do Not Like at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Like Very Much

102

Part B- Listening

Excerpt #5

a. Main instrument (s)______________________________________________

b. Other instrument(s)________________________________________________

c. Circle only one: Homophonic Polyphonic Heterophonic Monophonic

d. Circle only one choice for each item:

i) even uneven syncopated lots of repetition

ii) 2/4 3/4 4/4 6/8

iii) Allegro Moderato Presto Largo

iv) Staccato Legato Pizzicato Marcato

v) pp f mp ff

e. Choose one contour:

i.). ii.)

f. Not Familiar at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very Familiar

g. Do Not Like at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Like Very Much

103

Part B- Listening

Excerpt #6

a. Main instrument (s)______________________________________________

b. Other instrument(s)________________________________________________

c. Circle only one: Homophonic Polyphonic Heterophonic Monophonic

d. Circle only one choice for each item:

i) even uneven syncopated lots of repetition

ii) 2/4 3/4 4/4 6/8

iii) Allegro Moderato Presto Largo

iv) Staccato Legato Pizzicato Marcato

v) pp f mp ff

e. Choose one contour:

i.). ii.)

f. Not Familiar at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very Familiar

g. Do Not Like at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Like Very Much

104

Part B- Listening

Excerpt #7

a. Main instrument (s)______________________________________________

b. Other instrument(s)________________________________________________

c. Circle only one: Homophonic Polyphonic Heterophonic Monophonic

d. Circle only one choice for each item:

i) even uneven syncopated lots of repetition

ii) 2/4 3/4 4/4 6/8

iii) Allegro Moderato Presto Largo

iv) Staccato Legato Pizzicato Marcato

v) pp f mp ff

e. Choose one contour:

i.). ii.)

f. Not Familiar at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very Familiar

g. Do Not Like at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Like Very Much

105

Part B- Listening

Excerpt #8

a. Main instrument (s)______________________________________________

b. Other instrument(s)________________________________________________

c. Circle only one: Homophonic Polyphonic Heterophonic Monophonic

d. Circle only one choice for each item:

i) even uneven syncopated lots of repetition

ii) 2/4 3/4 4/4 6/8

iii) Allegro Moderato Presto Largo

iv) Staccato Legato Pizzicato Marcato

v) pp f mp ff

e. Choose one contour:

i.). ii.)

f. Not Familiar at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very Familiar

g. Do Not Like at All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Like Very Much

106

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117

Vita

Name

Jennifer Sue Shank

Date and Place of Birth

July 20, 1971

Cleveland, Ohio

Degrees Awarded

Master of Music

The University of Kentucky

Lexington, Kentucky

Bachelor of Arts

Shepherd College

Shepherdstown, West Virginia

Orff Certification, Levels I and II

Professional Positions Held

1998-2003 Teaching Assistant

University of Kentucky

Lexington, Kentucky

1998-1999 General Music Education Specialist

St. Marks

Richmond, Kentucky

1995-1998 Band Director

Manassas Park High School

Manassas Park, Virginia

118

1994-1995 General Music Education Specialist

St. Joseph School

Martinsburg, West Virginia

Presentations

The Effect of Musicing on Recognition of Music Concepts by College Students Presented

at the American Orff Schulwerk National Conference, Cincinnati, OH; November 2001

Studying Affective Response in Non-Musicians Presented at the Southern Division of the

Music Educators/Kentucky Music Educators Conference, Louisville KY; Feb 2001

Folk Songs and the World Wide Web Presented at the National Symposium of Music

Instruction Technology at Auburn University, Auburn, AL; July 1999

Membership in Professional Organizations

Music Educators National Conference

Kentucky Music Educators Association

American Orff- Schulwerk Association

Kentucky Orff-Schulwerk Association

College Music Society