Course and Exam Description
collegeboard.org
AP European History
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00642-003 160081396
AP
®
European
History
COURSE AND EXAM DESCRIPTION
Effective
Fall 2017
INCLUDING:
Course framework with
contextual information
Instructional section
A practice exam
About the College Board
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college success and opportunity. Founded in 1900, the College Board was created to expand
access to higher education. Today, the membership association is made up of over 6,000 of the
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and college success—including the SAT
®
and the Advanced Placement Program
®
. The
organization also serves the education community through research and advocacy on behalf of
students, educators, and schools. For further information, visit www.collegeboard.org.
AP
®
Equity and Access Policy
The College Board strongly encourages educators to make equitable access a guiding
principle for their AP programs by giving all willing and academically prepared students the
opportunity to participate in AP. We encourage the elimination of barriers that restrict access
to AP for students from ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic groups that have been traditionally
underrepresented. Schools should make every eort to ensure their AP classes reect the
diversity of their student population. The College Board also believes that all students should
have access to academically challenging course work before they enroll in AP classes, which
can prepare them for AP success. It is only through a commitment to equitable preparation
and access that true equity and excellence can be achieved.
© 2017 The College Board. College Board, Advanced Placement Program, AP, AP Central, and the acorn
logo are registered trademarks of the College Board. All other products and services may be trademarks of
their respective owners. Visit the College Board on the Web: www.collegeboard.org.
Contents
Changes in this Edition of the Course and Exam Description v
Acknowledgments vii
About AP 1
Oering AP Courses and Enrolling Students 2
How AP Courses and Exams Are Developed 2
How AP Exams Are Scored 3
Using and Interpreting AP Scores 3
Additional Resources 3
About the AP European History Course 4
Participating in the AP Course Audit 5
AP European History Course Framework 7
Overview 7
I. AP History Disciplinary Practices and Reasoning Skills 8
II. Thematic Learning Objectives 10
Theme 1: Interaction of Europe and the World 12
Theme 2: Poverty and Prosperity 16
Theme 3: Objective Knowledge and Subjective Visions 20
Theme 4: States and Other Institutions of Power 25
Theme 5: Individual and Society 33
Theme 6: National and European Identity 38
III. Concept Outline 43
Historical Periods 43
Using the Concept Outline to Plan Instruction 43
Period 1: c. 1450 to c. 1648 45
Period 2: c. 1648 to c. 1815 75
Period 3: c. 1815 to c. 1914 107
Period 4: c. 1914 to the Present 143
AP European History Instructional Approaches 179
Organizational Approaches 179
Selecting and Using Course Materials 182
Developing the Disciplinary Practices and Reasoning Skills 184
Increasing Depth and Managing Breadth Through Instructional Choices 199
Strategies for Instruction 202
AP European History Exam 213
Exam Overview 213
How Student Learning Is Assessed on the AP Exam 214
Exam Components 215
Practice Exam 217
Answer Key and Question Alignment to Course Framework 254
Contact Us 257
Changes in this Edition of the
Course and Exam Description
This edition of the course and exam description updates the 2016 edition with the following
changes, which respond to teachers’ concerns and promote the goals of exibility and in-
depth instruction that are critical to college-level history courses:
n
The reasoning skills have been reduced and streamlined, with the skills of periodization
and synthesis removed.
n
The exam design has been reconceived to allow more time for in-depth student responses
on free-response questions and to increase the amount of choice and exibility on the exam
to support local instructional curricular focus. The changes include:
w The document-based question will be limited to topics in the course, beginning
in 1600.
w The long essay question choices will continue to focus on the same theme and
skill, now allowing for students to select among three options, each focusing on
a dierent time period in the course.
w The number of required short-answer questions has been reduced to three.
Students will be given a choice among two options for the nal required short-
answer question, each one focusing on a dierent time period.
w Ten minutes have been added to Section II (the document-based question and the
long essay question).
w The rubrics for both the document-based question and the long essay question
have been streamlined. Both are available on AP Central.
n
The learning objectives have been consolidated and the concept outline material has been
revised, with a new theme (National and European Identity) made explicit, although the
scope of the course has not changed.
n
Language in the concept outline has been modied in places to improve clarity and to align
with current scholarship.
n
Some key concepts have been renumbered to create a more logical narrative.
n
Specic modications to key concepts include:
w Key Concept 1.1.I.A References Petrarch
w Key Concept 1.2 Renumbered to become Key Concept 1.5
w Key Concept 1.3 Renumbered to become Key Concept 1.2
w Key Concept 1.4 Renumbered to become Key Concept 1.3
w Key Concept 1.5 Renumbered to become Key Concept 1.4
(Formerly 1.3.I) w Key Concept 1.2.I.C
Added sub key concept “C” about Protestant
work ethic
w Key Concept 1.2.I.D (Formerly 1.3.I.C) Renumbered
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© 2017 The College Board
AP European History Course and Exam Description
Changes in this Edition of the Course and Exam Description
v
w Key Concept 1.5.III.C (Formerly under 1.2.III)
Added sub key concept “C” about local and regional
identities in relation to state power.
w Key Concept 2.3 Reorganized for clarity—sub key concept “C” added;
religious revival
w Key Concept 4.1.V Renumbered to become 4.4.IV
w Key Concept 4.1.VI Renumbered to become 4.1.V
w Key Concept 4.1.VII Renumbered to become 4.1.VI
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© 2017 The College Board
AP European History Course and Exam Description
vi
Changes in this Edition of the Course and Exam Description
Acknowledgments
The College Board would like to acknowledge the following committee members, consultants,
and reviewers for their assistance with and commitment to the development of this curriculum
and assessment. All individuals and their aliations were current at the time of contribution.
William Alexander, Norfolk State University, Norfolk, VA
Stanley Chodorow, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA
Paul Deslandes, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT
Christopher Freiler, Hinsdale Central High School, Hinsdale, IL
Jennifer L. Foray, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN
Michael Galgano, James Madison University, Harrisonburg, VA
Diego Gonzalez, Benjamin Franklin High School, New Orleans, LA
Je Hamilton, Baylor University, Waco, TX
Oliver Holmes, Wesleyan University, Middletown, CT
Kim Jago, Tampa Preparatory School, Tampa, FL
Lloyd Kramer, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
Carolyn Lougee, Stanford University, Stanford, CA
Patricia McGloine, Princess Anne High School, Virginia Beach, VA
Gordon Mork, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN
Patricia Nardi, George W. Hewlett High School, Hewlett, NY
Wendy Owen-Bumsted, Formerly at St. John’s-Ravenscourt School, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
Karen Phillips, Pope John Paul II High School, Hendersonville, TN
Carol Pixton, Polytechnic School, Pasadena, CA
Kelly Saenz, Westwood High School, Austin, TX
John Sauerman, The Lawrenceville School, Lawrenceville, NJ
Bonnie Smith, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ
Emily Tai, Queensborough Community College, Bayside, NY
Victoria Thompson, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ
Natasha Vasavada, Formerly at Livingston High School, Livingston, NJ
Kelly Stromberg, Director, AP Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment
Allison Thurber, Senior Director, AP Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
Acknowledgments
vii
About AP
The College Board’s Advanced Placement Program
®
(AP) enables students to pursue college-
level studies while still in high school. Through more than 30 courses, each culminating in a
rigorous exam, AP provides willing and academically prepared students with the opportunity
to earn college credit and/or advanced placement. Taking AP courses also demonstrates
to college admission ocers that students have sought out the most rigorous course work
available to them.
Each AP course is modeled upon a comparable college course, and college and university
faculty play a vital role in ensuring that AP courses align with college-level standards.
Talented and dedicated AP teachers help AP students in classrooms around the world develop
and apply the content knowledge and skills they will need later in college.
Each AP course concludes with a college-level assessment developed and scored by college
and university faculty, as well as experienced AP teachers. AP Exams are an essential part
ofthe AP experience, enabling students to demonstrate their mastery of college-levelcourse
work. Most four-year colleges and universities in the United States and universities inmore
than 60 countries recognize AP in the admission process and grant students credit,placement,
or both on the basis of successful AP Exam scores. Visit www.collegeboard.org/apcreditpolicy
to view AP credit and placement policies at more than 1,000 colleges and universities.
1
Performing well on an AP Exam means more than just the successful completion of a
course; it is a gateway to success in college. Research consistently shows that students who
receive a score of 3 or higher on AP Exams typically experience greater academic success in
college and have higher graduation rates than their non-AP peers.
1
Additional AP studies are
available at www.collegeboard.org/research.
1
See the following research studies for more details:
Linda Hargrove, Donn Godin, and Barbara Dodd, College Outcomes Comparisons by AP and Non-AP
High School Experiences (New York: The College Board, 2008).
Chrys Dougherty, Lynn Mellor, and Shuling Jian, The Relationship Between Advanced Placement and
College Graduation (Austin, Texas: National Center for Educational Accountability, 2006).
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
About AP
1
Each AP course and exam description details the essential information required to understand
the objectives and expectations of an AP course. The AP Program unequivocally supports the
principle that each school implements its own curriculum that will enable students to develop
the content knowledge and skills described here.
Schools wishing to oer AP courses must participate in the AP Course Audit, a process
through which AP teachers’ syllabi are reviewed by college faculty. The AP Course Audit
was created at the request of College Board members who sought a means for the College
Board to provide teachers and administrators with clear guidelines on curricular and resource
requirements for AP courses and to help colleges and universities validate courses marked
“AP” on students’ transcripts. This process ensures that AP teachers’ syllabi meet or exceed
the curricular and resource expectations that college and secondary school faculty have
established for college-level courses. For more information on the AP Course Audit, visit
www.collegeboard.org/apcourseaudit.
The College Board strongly encourages educators to make equitable access a guiding
principle for their AP programs by giving all willing and academically prepared students the
opportunity to participate in AP. We encourage the elimination of barriers that restrict access
to AP for students from ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic groups that have been traditionally
underrepresented. Schools should make every eort to ensure their AP classes reect the
diversity of their student population. The College Board also believes that all students should
have access to academically challenging course work before they enroll in AP classes, which
can prepare them for AP success. It is only through a commitment to equitable preparation
and access that true equity and excellence can be achieved.
How AP Courses and Exams Are Developed
AP courses and exams are designed by committees of college faculty and expert AP
teachers who ensure that each AP subject reects and assesses college-level expectations.
To nd a list of each subject’s current AP Development Committee members, please
visitcollegeboard.org/apcommittees. AP Development Committees dene the scope and
expectations of the course, articulating through a course framework what students should
know and be able to do upon completion of the AP course. Their work is informed by data
collected from a range of colleges and universities to ensure that AP coursework reects
current scholarship and advances in the discipline.
The AP Development Committees are also responsible for drawing clear and well-articulated
connections between the AP course and AP Exam—work that includes designing and
approving exam specications and exam questions. The AP Exam development process is a
multiyear endeavor; all AP Exams undergo extensive review, revision, piloting, and analysis
to ensure that questions are high quality and fair and that there is an appropriate spread of
diculty across the questions.
Throughout AP course and exam development, the College Board gathers feedback from
various stakeholders in both secondary schools and higher education institutions. This
feedback is carefully considered to ensure that AP courses and exams are able to provide
students with a college-level learning experience and the opportunity to demonstrate their
qualications for advanced placement upon college entrance.
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
2
About AP
The exam scoring process, like the course and exam development process, relies on the
expertise of both AP teachers and college faculty. While multiple-choice questions are scored
by machine, the free-response questions are scored by thousands of college faculty and expert
AP teachers at the annual AP Reading. AP Exam Readers are thoroughly trained, and their
work is monitored throughout the Reading for fairness and consistency. In each subject, a
highly respected college faculty member lls the role of Chief Reader, who, with the help of
AP Readers in leadership positions, maintains the accuracy of the scoring standards. Scores
on the free-response questions are weighted and combined with the results of the computer-
scored multiple-choice questions, and this raw score is converted into a composite AP score
of 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1.
The score-setting process is both precise and labor intensive, involving numerous
psychometric analyses of the results of a specic AP Exam in a specic year and of the
particular group of students who took that exam. Additionally, to ensure alignment with
college-level standards, part of the score-setting process involves comparing the performance
of AP students with the performance of students enrolled in comparable courses in colleges
throughout the United States. In general, the AP composite score points are set so that the
lowest raw score needed to earn an AP score of 5 is equivalent to the average score among
college students earning grades of A in the college course. Similarly, AP Exam scores of 4 are
equivalent to college grades of A−, B+, and B. AP Exam scores of 3 are equivalent to college
grades of B−, C+, and C.
College faculty are involved in every aspect of AP, from course and exam development to
scoring and standards alignment. These faculty members ensure that the courses and exams
meet colleges’ expectations for content taught in comparable college courses. Based on
outcomes research and program evaluation, the American Council on Education (ACE) and
the Advanced Placement Program recommend that colleges grant credit and/or placement to
students with AP Exam scores of 3 and higher. The AP score of 3 is equivalent to grades of
B−, C+, and C in the equivalent college course. However, colleges and universities set their
own AP credit, advanced standing, and course placement policies based on their unique
needs and objectives.
AP Score Recommendation
5 Extremely well qualied
4 Well qualied
3 Qualied
2 Possibly qualied
1 No recommendation
Additional Resources
Visit apcentral.collegeboard.org for more information about the AP Program.
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
About AP
3
About the AP European History Course
AP European History is designed to be the equivalent of a two-semester introductory college
or university European history course. In AP European History students investigate signicant
events, individuals, developments, and processes in four historical periods from approximately
1450 to the present. Students develop and use the same skills, practices, and methods
employed by historians: analyzing primary and secondary sources; developing historical
arguments; making historical comparisons; and utilizing reasoning about contextualization,
causation, and continuity and change over time. The course also provides six themes that
students explore throughout the course in order to make connections among historical
developments in dierent times and places: interaction of Europe and the world; poverty and
prosperity; objective knowledge and subjective visions; states and other institutions of power;
individual and society; and national and European identity.
Prerequisites
There are no prerequisites for AP European History. Students should be able to read a
college-level textbook and write grammatically correct, complete sentences.
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
4
About the AP European History Course
Participating in the AP Course Audit
Schools wishing to oer AP courses must participate in the AP Course Audit. Participation
in the AP Course Audit requires the online submission of two documents: the AP Course
Audit form and the teacher’s syllabus. The AP Course Audit form is submitted by the AP
teacher and the school principal (or designated administrator) to conrm awareness and
understanding of the curricular and resource requirements. The syllabus, detailing how
course requirements are met, is submitted by the AP teacher for review by college faculty.
Please visit http://www.collegeboard.com/html/apcourseaudit/courses/european_history.html
for the Curricular and Resource Requirements that identify the set of curricular and resource
expectations that college faculty nationwide have established for a college-level course, as
well as for more information to support syllabus development including:
n
Annotated Sample Syllabi — Provide examples of how the curricular requirements can be
demonstrated within the context of actual syllabi.
n
Example Textbook List — Includes a sample of AP college-level textbooks that meet the
content requirements of the AP course.
n
Syllabus Development Guide — Includes the guidelines reviewers use to evaluate syllabi
along with three samples of evidence for each requirement. This guide also species the
level of detail required in the syllabus to receive course authorization.
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
Participating in the AP Course Audit
5
AP European History
Course Framework
Introduction
The AP European History course outlined in this framework reects a commitment to what
history teachers, professors, and researchers have agreed is the main goal of a college-
level European history survey course: learning to analyze and interpret historical facts and
evidence to achieve understanding of major developments in European history.
To accomplish this goal, the AP European History Course and Exam Description denes
concepts, skills, and understandings required by representative colleges and universities
for granting college credit and placement. Students practice the reasoning skills used by
historians by studying primary and secondary source evidence, analyzing a wide array of
historical facts and perspectives, and expressing historical arguments in writing.
This document is not a complete curriculum. Teachers create their own local curriculum
by selecting, for each concept, content that enables students to explore the course learning
objectives and that meets state or local requirements. The result is a course that prepares
students for college credit and placement while relieving the pressure on AP teachers to
supercially cover all possible details of European history.
Overview
The AP history disciplinary practices and reasoning skills are central to the study and
practice of history. Teachers should help students develop and apply the described practices
and skills on a regular basis over the span of the course.
II. Thematic Learning Objectives
The thematic objectives, organized into six major themes, describe what students should
know and be able to do by the end of the AP European History course. These learning
objectives are the targets of AP Exam questions.
III. Concept Outline
The concept outline details key concepts that colleges and universities typically expect
students to understand in order to qualify for college credit and/or placement.
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
7
I. AP History Disciplinary Practices
The AP history courses seek to apprentice students to the practice of history by emphasizing
the development of disciplinary practices and skills while learning historical content.
Students best develop these practices and skills by investigating the past through the
exploration and interpretation of a rich array of primary sources and secondary texts and
through the regular development of historical argumentation in writing. This section presents
the disciplinary practices and reasoning skills that students should develop in all AP history
courses. The tables describe what students should be able to do with each practice or skill.
Every AP Exam question will assess one or more of these practices and skills.
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
8
AP History Disciplinary Practices
Practice 1: Analyzing Historical Evidence Practice 2: Argument Development
Students will be assessed on their ability to …
Primary Sources
Describe historically relevant information and/or arguments within a source.
w
w
Explain how a source provides information about the broader historical
setting within which it was created.
w
Explain how a source’s point of view, purpose, historical situation, and/or
audience might aect a source’s meaning.
w
Explain the relative historical signicance of a source’s point of view,
purpose, historical situation, and/or audience.
w
Evaluate a source’s credibility and/or limitations.
Secondary Sources
w
Describe the claim or argument of a secondary source, as well as the
evidence used.
w
Describe a pattern or trend in quantitative data in non-text-based sources.
Explain how a historian’s claim or argument is supported with evidence.
w
w
Explain how a historian’s context inuences the claim or argument.
Analyze patterns and trends in quantitative data in non-text-based sources.
w
w
Evaluate the eectiveness of a historical claim or argument.
w
Make a historically defensible
claim in the form of an evaluative
thesis.
w
Support an argument using
specic and relevant evidence.
Use historical reasoning to
explain relationships among
pieces of historical evidence.
w
w
Consider ways that diverse or
alternative evidence could be used
to qualify or modify an argument.
Skill 1:
Contextualization
Skill 2:
Comparison
Skill 3:
Causation
Skill 4:
Continuity and
Change over Time
Describe an accurate
historical context for
a specic historical
development or
process.
Describe similarities and/or
dierences between dierent
historical developments or
processes.
Describe causes or eects
of a specic historical
development or process.
Describe patterns
of continuity and/or
change over time.
Explain how a relevant
context inuenced
a specic historical
development or
process.
Explain relevant similarities
and/or dierences
between specic historical
developments and processes.
Explain the relationship
between causes and eects
of a specic historical
development or process.
Explain the dierence
between primary and
secondary causes and
between short- and long-
term eects.
Explain patterns of
continuity and/or
change over time.
Use context to explain
the relative historical
signicance of a
specic historical
development or
process.
Explain the relative historical
signicance of similarities
and/or dierences between
dierent historical
developments or processes.
Explain the relative historical
signicance of dierent
causes and/or eects.
Explain the relative
historical signicance
of specic historical
developments in
relation to a larger
pattern of continuity
and/or change.
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
9
II. Thematic Learning Objectives
The thematic learning objectives describe, at a high level, the knowledge colleges expect
students to develop in the AP European History course in order to be qualied for credit and
placement. In order to help students develop this knowledge, teachers will need to anchor
their locally developed AP syllabi in historical content and skills. The learning objectives are
grouped into six themes typically included in college-level European history courses:
n
Interaction of Europe and the World (INT)
n
Poverty and Prosperity (PP)
n
Objective Knowledge and Subjective Visions (OS)
n
States and Other Institutions of Power (SP)
n
Individual and Society (IS)
n
National and European Identity (NI)
These themes focus on major historical issues and developments, helping students connect
the historical content they study to broad trends and processes that have emerged over
centuries. Each theme is presented with its description and a table that outlines the learning
objectives for that theme.
The tables of thematic learning objectives serve as an index to the concept outline (contained
in Section III) by indicating where content related to each learning objective can be found in
the concept outline. These tables help to highlight the relationship between specic historical
content and broader historical developments.
A guide to a sample table of learning objectives is provided on the following page.
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
10
Thematic Learning Objectives
Learning Objectives
Students are able to ... Relevant Topics in the Concept Outline
INT-1 Explain how economic,
religious, cultural, and political
motives inuenced European
exploration and colonization of
overseas territories.
1.3.II Commercial and religious motivations,
Christianity
1.3.III Competition for trade
2.1.III Rivalry between Britain and France
2.2.II Worldwide economic network
2.2.III Commercial rivalries
3.1.III Globalized markets
3.5.I National rivalries, raw materials and markets,
cultural and racial superiority
3.6.II Social Darwinism
4.1.VI Post–World War I mandate system; principle
of national self-determination
INT-2 Explain how political,
scientic, and technological
developments facilitated
European contact and interaction
with other parts of the world.
1.3.II Technological advances
1.3.III Commercial networks
2.2.II Mercantilism; slave-labor system
2.2.III Diplomacy and warfare
3.1.III New communication and transportation
technologies
3.5.II Industrial and technological developments
4.1.VI Mandate system
Each learning objective is supported by historical
examples and processes that are explained in the
concept outline in Section III. This part of the table
describes the correlations between the learning
objective and the concept outline.
The learning objectives in this
column articulate expectations for
student performance on the AP
European History Exam.
The information in this
column claries which topics
within the concept outline
correlate to the learning
objective.
This particular example refers
to the sixth supporting concept
(Roman numeral) statement
under Key Concept 4.1.
The learning objectives are
coded to the corresponding
theme (INT) and numbered
consecutively.
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
Thematic Learning Objectives
11
Learning Objectives By Theme
Theme 1: Interaction of Europe and the World (INT)
This theme focuses on the various factors and motivations that contributed to Europe’s
interaction with the world since 1450, as well as the impact this interaction had both on
Europe and on non-European societies.
Beginning in the 15th century, European nations sent explorers into the world beyond the
Mediterranean, establishing new shipping routes, trading stations, and eventually, colonies
in many parts of the globe. The motivations for these enterprises were complex and have
been the subject of much historical debate. Were Europeans driven primarily by the desire
for more direct and secure trade routes, by the pursuit of new commercial wealth, or by
religious motivations, such as the desire to convert new peoples to Christianity? Whatever the
motivations, these explorations created new, complex trade systems that profoundly aected
European prosperity, patterns of consumption, commercial competition, and national rivalries.
The activities and inuence of Europeans varied in dierent parts of the world. In India and
China, centers of high civilizations, Europeans remained on the periphery in trading stations
for centuries. In Africa, Europeans also established themselves on the coasts, trading with
the indigenous populations of the interior. European settlements in the new world imported
religious, social, and political institutions to the Americas, which would forever transform this
region and its indigenous peoples. The encounters with non-European peoples profoundly
aected European trade, social life, and ideas, both at the time and for centuries to come.
With their American colonies and the global reach of their seafarers, Europeans helped to create
a truly global trading system, introducing new foods that changed the food cultures of China,
India, and Europe. At the same time as Europe was experiencing the material consequences of
its interaction with the world, European intellectuals began to describe and analyze the peoples
and cultures with which they came into contact, and collect and catalogue the ora and fauna
they discovered. The use of “race” as a primary category for dierentiating people coincided
with the expansion of slavery, as Europeans sought a workforce for overseas plantations; this
categorization helped Europeans justify the slave system. From the 16th to the 19th century, the
transatlantic slave trade became a central feature of the world economy, and millions of Africans
were transported via the notorious Middle Passage to labor on plantations in the Americas. The
vast and cruel slave system led to various forms of resistance by enslaved peoples and began
to generate opposition in Europe beginning in the late 18th century. Abolitionists objected
to the system on humanitarian and religious grounds. An important strand of Enlightenment
thought—the belief in citizenship, popular sovereignty, equality, and liberty—promoted by
the American and French revolutions also contributed to the ideology of the abolitionist
movements, and several European states abolished the slave trade in the early 19th century.
However, critiques of colonialism did not have an immediate effect, given that the 19th
century was a period of empire building. Driven by the needs of an industrial economy
and nationalism, Europeans expanded their territorial control in Asia and Africa
through warfare, economic agreements and arrangements, the seizure of property, and,
in some cases, immigration. In the late 19th century, the scale and pace of conquest
intensified because of asymmetries in military technology, communications, and national
rivalries among the Great Powers. In conquered territories, Europeans established new
administrative, legal, and cultural institutions, and restructured colonial economies to
meet European needs, actions that often led to resistance and opposition in colonial areas.
Within Europe, exposure to new peoples and cultures influenced art and literature, and
spurred efforts to find a scientific basis for racial differences. Competition for colonies
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
12
Thematic Learning Objectives
also destabilized the European balance of power and was a significant cause of World
War I. In the mid-20th century, the rise of the United States as an economic and military
power, the far-reaching consequences of the two world wars, and the Cold War resulted
in the contraction and collapse of the traditional European empires—a process known
as decolonization. At the end of the 20th century, Europe sought new ways of defining
interactions among its own nations and with the rest of the world. At the same time, the
migration of non-European people into Europe began to change the ethnic and religious
composition of European society and to create uncertainties about European identity.
Learning Objectives
Students are able to ... Relevant Topics in the Concept Outline
INT-1 Describe how
economic, religious, cultural,
and political motives
inuenced European
exploration and colonization
of overseas territories.
1.3.I Commercial and religious motivations
1.3.III Commercial and trade competition
2.1.III Rivalry between Britain and France
2.2.II Development of a worldwide economic network
2.2.III Commercial rivalries
3.5.I National rivalries; raw materials and markets; cultural
and racial superiority
3.6.II Social Darwinism
4.1.VI Mandate system; principle of national self-
determination
INT-2 Describe how
political, scientic, and
technological developments
facilitated European contact
and interaction with other
parts of the world.
1.3.II Technological advances
1.3.III Trade, negotiation and coercion establish empires
1.4.III Commercial networks
2.2.II Mercantilism; slave-labor system; movement of raw
materials and manufactured goods
2.2.III Diplomacy and warfare
3.1.III New communication and transportation technologies
3.5.II Industrial and technological developments
4.1.VI Mandate system and League of Nations
INT-3 Explain how dierent
motives for promoting
European exploration and
colonization of overseas
territories changed from
1450 to the present.
1.3.I Commercial and religious motivations
1.3.II Technological advances
1.3.III Competition for trade; commercial networks
2.1.III Rivalry between Britain and France
2.2.II Worldwide economic network; mercantilism; slave-
labor system
2.2.III Commercial rivalries; diplomacy and warfare
3.1.III Second industrial revolution transportation
improvements
3.5.I National rivalries; raw materials and markets; cultural
and racial superiority
3.5.II Industrial and technological developments
3.6.II Social Darwinism
4.1.VI Decolonization
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Thematic Learning Objectives
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Learning Objectives
Students are able to ... Relevant Topics in the Concept Outline
INT-4 Evaluate why dierent
motives for promoting
European exploration and
colonization of overseas
territories changed from
1450 to the present.
1.3.I Commercial and religious motivations; Christianity
1.3.II Technological advances
1.3.III Competition for trade; commercial networks
2.1.III Rivalry between Britain and France
2.2.II Worldwide economic network; mercantilism; slave-
labor system
2.2.III Commercial rivalries; diplomacy and warfare
3.5.I National rivalries; raw materials and markets; cultural
and racial superiority
3.5.II Industrial and technological developments
INT-5 Explain how
encounters between Europe
and the wider world shaped
European culture, politics,
and society.
1.3.I Access to gold, spices, and luxury goods;
mercantilism
1.3.III Commercial and trading networks
1.3.IV Columbian Exchange; shift of economic power to
Atlantic states; economic opportunities; expansion of
slave trade
2.1.IV Slave revolt and independence of Haiti
2.2.III Commercial rivalries
2.3.II Increased exposure to representations of people
outside Europe
3.1.III New means of communication and transportation
3.5.I Search for raw materials and markets
3.5.III Imperial encounters with non-European peoples
4.1.I Emergence of United States as a world power; impact
of global war; collapse of empires
4.1.II Wilsonian idealism; national self-determination
4.1.IV Cold War; world monetary and trade systems and
geopolitical alliances
4.1.VI National self-determination
4.2.IV Postwar reconstruction of industry and infrastructure;
consumerism; Marshall plan
4.3.III Increased immigration into Europe
4.3.IV United States inuence on elite and popular culture
4.4.I New communication and transportation technologies
4.4.III Anti-immigration agitation and extreme nationalist
political parties; Green parties; revolt of 1968
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Thematic Learning Objectives
Learning Objectives
Students are able to ... Relevant Topics in the Concept Outline
INT-6 Explain how
encounters between Europe
and the wider world shaped
non-European culture,
politics, and society.
1.3.I Exploration motives; mercantilism
1.3.III Establishment of empires
1.3.IV Slave trade; new goods; Columbian Exchange
2.1.III Colonial rivalry and warfare
2.1.IV Revolution across the Atlantic; inuence of French
Revolution
2.2.II Slave trade; new consumer goods
2.2.III Diplomacy and colonial wars
3.5.I Imperialist motives; Social Darwinism; scientic
racism; Latin American revolutions
3.5.III Responses and resistance to imperialism; imperial
conicts and alliances
4.1.I World War I outside Europe; causes of World War I
4.1.IV Cold War outside Europe
4.1.VI Nationalism and decolonization; independence
movements and mandates
4.3.III Colonial emigration to Europe
4.4.III Migrant workers
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Theme 2: Poverty and Prosperity (PP)
This theme focuses on the role that economic development, especially the development of
capitalism, played in Europe’s history as well as its social and political impact.
In the centuries after 1450, Europe rst entered and then gradually came to dominate a global
commercial network. Building o the voyages of exploration and colonization, the commercial
revolution of the 17th and 18th centuries involved a wide range of new nancial and economic
practices, such as joint-stock companies, widely capitalized banks, and triangular trade—all
of which supported an emerging money economy. New commercial techniques and goods
provided Europeans with an improved diet and standard of living, and in turn, wealth from
commerce supported the growth of industrial capitalism in subsequent centuries.
Commercial wealth helped transform a preindustrial economy based on guild production,
cottage industry, and subsistence agriculture into one driven by market operations.
Commercial wealth generated resources for centralizing states, many of which, prior to the
French Revolution, justied government management of trade, manufacturing, nance, and
taxation through mercantilism. Mercantilism assumed that existing sources of wealth could
not be expanded; accordingly, the only way to increase one’s economic power over others was
to gain a greater share of the existing sources of wealth. As a result, mercantilism promoted
commercial competition and at times resulted in warfare overseas.
Market demands generated the increasingly mechanized production of goods through the
technology of the Industrial Revolution. Large-scale production required capital investment,
which led to the development of capitalism: based on Adam Smith’s 1776 work, The Wealth of
Nations, this economic system prioritized private investment by individuals and institutions.
The growth of large-scale agriculture and factories changed social and economic relations.
Peasants left the countryside to work in the new factories, giving up lives as tenants on
landlords’ estates for wage labor. Improved climate and diet supported a gradual population
increase in the 18th century followed by a population explosion in the industrial 19th century.
Industrialization generated unprecedented levels of material prosperity for some Europeans,
particularly during the second industrial revolution (1850–1914), when an outburst of new
technologies ushered Europe into modern mass society.
According to its critics, capitalism led to an unequal distribution of wealth and opportunities:
it created interconnected nancial markets that periodically crashed, which could lead to
widespread repercussions. Capitalism’s emphasis on free trade shifted production from
expensive to inexpensive regions, like the overseas colonies in Africa and Asia, which had
the impact of reducing or holding down the wages of workers in Europe. In the 19th century,
these criticisms found expression in socialism—a new social and political ideology that
called for state ownership of property and economic planning as a means to promote equality.
Throughout Europe, socialist-inspired parties and organizations called for reforms and in
some cases the overthrow of the capitalist system.
The devastating impact of two world wars and the Great Depression transformed pre-1914
economic patterns and complicated the task of governments in managing the unstable
economic situation. Soviet Russia and its post–World War II satellites represented one path,
communism, which pursued a policy of planned economies that collectivized agriculture
in the name of forcing rapid industrial growth, and which ultimately experienced economic
and political collapse. Nations in Western Europe, Scandinavia, and parts of Central Europe
modied laissez-faire capitalism with Keynesian budget and tax policies and in some cases
an expanding welfare state. Consumerism, always an important factor in economic growth,
took on even more importance in the second half of the 20th century when Western European
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Thematic Learning Objectives
nations experienced what was termed an economic miracle. The post-World War II period also
witnessed the movement toward European economic unity and a common currency, as well as
the creation and challenges of maintaining social welfare programs.
Learning Objectives
Students are able to ... Relevant Topics in the Concept Outline
PP-1 Explain how capitalism
has developed as an
economic system.
1.3.I Rise of mercantilism
1.3.IV Establishment of global trade
2.2.I Market economy
2.2.II European-dominated worldwide economic network
2.3.III New economic theories espousing free trade and a
free market
2.4.II Consumer revolution of the 18th century
3.1.I Great Britain’s industrial dominance
3.1.II Industrialization of continental Europe
3.1.III Second industrial revolution
3.2.IV Development of a heightened consumerism
4.2.IV Postwar economic growth
4.3.IV Increased imports of United States popular culture
and technology
4.4.I Mass production, industrial eciency, and new
technologies
PP-2 Explain the impact
of the development of new
technologies and industries
on economic growth and
the standard of living in
dierent geographic regions.
1.4.II Commercialization of agriculture; codication of serfdom
2.2.I Agricultural Revolution
2.2.II Importation of agricultural products from the
Americas and other foreign lands
2.4.I Agricultural Revolution increases food supply and
population
2.4.IV Agricultural Revolution allows surplus labor to relocate
3.1.I Great Britain’s industrialization
3.1.II Industrialization on the European continent
3.1.III New technologies and means of communication
3.2.II Rapid population growth and urbanization
3.2.III Industrial Revolution alters family structure
3.2.IV Mass marketing; ecient methods of transportation,
new industries create heightened consumerism
3.2.V Delayed industrialization in parts of Europe
4.2.V Collapse of the Soviet Union
4.3.II Medical technologies
4.3.IV United States’ technology and popular culture causes
enthusiasm and criticism
4.4.I Mass production, food technologies, industrial
eciency, communication and transportation
technologies
4.4.II New modes of marriage, partnership, motherhood,
divorce, reproduction
4.4.III New political and social movements
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Learning Objectives
Students are able to ... Relevant Topics in the Concept Outline
PP-3 Explain how society
has changed over time as a
result of the development of
capitalism.
1.4.I New social patterns
1.4.II Price revolution
1.4.III Expansion of cities; challenges to traditional political
and social structures
1.4.V Popular culture and leisure activities
1.5.I Commercial and professional groups gained in power
2.2.I Market economy
2.3.V Art and literature reected the values of commercial
society
2.4.III Demographic shifts based on economy
2.4.IV Increased migration to cities
3.1.III Mechanization and factory systems
3.2.I Development of new classes
3.2.II Migration from rural to urban areas and social
dislocations
3.2.III Changes to family structure
3.3.I Evolution of socialist ideology and socialist critiques
of capitalism
3.3.II Reforms of cities
3.3.III Labor unions; political movements and social
organizations
3.6.I Romantic writers’ response to the Industrial
Revolution
3.6.II Marx’s critique of capitalism; realist and materialist
themes in art and literature
4.1.IV World monetary and trade systems
4.2.I Russian Revolution
4.2.II Fascism and increased popularity of fascist ideology
4.2.III Great Depression and diering responses
4.2.IV Postwar economic growth and welfare benets
4.3.I Belief in progress breaks down
4.3.IV Criticism of United States’ technology and popular
culture
4.4.I Creation of a consumer culture
4.4.II New opportunities and roles for women; the baby
boom
4.4.III Increased immigration to Europe
4.4.IV European economic and political integration
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Thematic Learning Objectives
Learning Objectives
Students are able to ... Relevant Topics in the Concept Outline
PP-4 Explain the causes and
consequences of economic
inequality.
1.4.II Commercialization of agriculture; abolition of
traditional rights
2.1.IV French Revolution
2.1.V Napoleon’s domestic reforms and expanding empire
2.3.I Rationalism and empiricism challenge prevailing
patterns of thought and institutions
2.4.IV Migration from rural areas to cities
3.2.V Areas of Europe lagged behind in economic development
3.3.I Development of ideologies
3.4.II National unication and liberal reforms
3.6.II Marx’s critique of capitalism
4.2.I Russian Revolution
4.2.II Fascism and increased popularity of fascist ideology
4.2.III Great Depression
4.2.IV Postwar economic growth and welfare benets
4.3.I Belief in progress breaks down
PP-5 Explain how
individuals, groups, and the
state responded to economic
developments over time.
1.4.II Commercialization of agriculture; abolition of
traditional rights
1.4.III Government regulation of public morals
2.1.IV French Revolution
2.1.V Napoleon’s domestic reforms and expanding empire
2.3.I Rationalism and empiricism challenge prevailing
patterns of thought and institutions
2.4.IV Migration from rural areas to cities; policing of
marginal groups
3.2.II Overcrowding in cities
3.2.III Labor laws and social welfare programs
3.3.I Development of ideologies
3.3.II Reform of cities; government expansion of functions
3.3.III Response of political movements and social organizations
3.4.I Concert of Europe; political revolutions and reactions
3.4.II National unication and liberal reforms
3.6.II Marx’s critique of capitalism
4.2.I Russian Revolution
4.2.III Great Depression and reactions by governments and
others
4.2.IV Expansion of social welfare programs
4.2.V Social welfare programs in Central and Eastern
Europe; perestroika
4.3.I Belief in progress breaks down
4.4.III New social movements push for expansion of rights;
migration
4.4.IV Eorts at economic and political integration
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Thematic Learning Objectives
19
This theme focuses on the creation and transmission of knowledge in Europe’s history,
with particular focus on the relationship between traditional sources of authority and the
development of diering world views.
Starting in the 15th century, European thinkers began developing new methods for arriving at
objective truth—substituting these methods for appeals to traditional authorities—and then
gradually moved away from belief in absolute truths to increasingly subjective interpretations
of reality. While some thinkers argued that direct inquiry (philosophical and scientic) was
the principal way to formulate truths and representations of reality, many early modern
Europeans continued to rely on religious authority and ancient texts for their knowledge of
the world and as a standard of value.
Scholars of the natural world created new theories of knowledge based on observation and
experimentation, along with new institutions to put the new theories into practice. Science
came to be viewed as an objective source of truth about the natural world. At the same time,
many of these natural philosophers retained religious worldviews as they explored these
new approaches to scientic inquiry. Artists, musicians, and writers also employed empirical
and quantitative methods to express the notions of space, time, and sound in new cultural
periods, many of which, such as the Renaissance, continued to draw on classical subjects
and inuences.
During the Enlightenment, certain segments of the European population came to accept the
world as governed by natural laws, accessible through systematic observation and articulated
in mathematics. The results of this intellectual movement were impressive, producing a new
understanding of the universe (often designated as Newtonian mechanics) and systems
to organize and advance the growing body of knowledge of plants, animals, and minerals.
Under the inuence of the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution, intellectuals and
activists attempted to employ a similarly scientic approach to the questions of political,
social, and economic reform, resulting in the development of such ideologies as conservatism,
liberalism, nationalism, socialism, and Marxism. Those in the ne arts and literature both
applied and commented on these methods in their depictions of European life during this
period of rapid change.
Over time, the new method for acquiring knowledge through observation and experimentation
raised questions about the relationship between the observer and the observed. Beginning
in the 19th century, new theories called into question the supremacy of reason and the
possibility of nding objective truth in favor of subjective interpretations of reality and the
importance of nonrational forces. In physics, quantum mechanics and Einstein’s theories
of relativity, which took the observer into account, challenged Newtonian mechanics, and
in psychology, Freud emphasized the importance of irrational drives in human behavior.
Beginning in the 19th century and accelerating in the 20th, European artists and intellectuals,
along with a portion of the educated public, rejected absolute paradigms (whether idealist
or scientic), replacing them with relative and subjective ones, as exemplied by existential
philosophy, modern art, and postmodernist ideas and culture. The emergence of these ideas
created a conict between science and subjective approaches to knowledge. Europeans
continued to engage in science and to regard the results of science as being of universal
value, while postmodernist thinkers emphasized the subjective component—the role of
the actor—in all human activities, including scientic ones. These ways of thinking often
coexisted with more traditional religious institutions, whether in the form of churches or
new religiously aliated political parties, which continued to exert inuence over the daily
lives of Europeans.
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Thematic Learning Objectives
Learning Objectives
Students are able to ... Relevant Topics in the Concept Outline
OS-1 Explain the roles
traditional sources of
authority—church and
classical antiquity—have
played in the creation and
transmission of knowledge.
1.1.I Revival of classical texts; new methods of scholarship
1.1.II Invention of printing press
1.1.III Visual arts of the Renaissance
1.1.IV Science based on observation, experimentation,
and mathematics
1.4.V Continued appeal of alchemy and astrology; oral
culture of peasants
2.3.I Popular culture
2.3.II Rational and empirical thought
New print media
OS-2 Explain how political
revolution and war altered
the role of the church in
political and intellectual life,
as well as how religious
authorities and intellectuals
responded to these changes.
1.1.I Secular models for political behavior
1.2.III Religious conict and wars of religion
1.5.I Treaty of Westphalia
2.1.I Absolute monarchy
2.1.II Alternatives to absolutism
2.1.IV Liberal revolution; radical Jacobin republic
2.3.III Political theories, such as John Locke’s
2.3.IV Toleration of Christian minorities and civil rights
granted to Jews
3.3.I Ideologies
3.4.I Political revolts and revolutions
4.2.II Fascist rejection of democracy; glorication of war
and nationalism
4.3.III Continued role of organized religion
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Thematic Learning Objectives
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Learning Objectives
Students are able to ... Relevant Topics in the Concept Outline
OS-3 Explain how
traditional views of
authority and forms of
knowledge coexisted with
the scientic method and
reason.
1.1.I Secular models for political behavior
1.1.II Invention of printing press
1.1.III Visual arts of the Renaissance
1.1.IV Science based on observation, experimentation,
mathematics
1.2.I Protestant and Catholic reformations
1.3.II Advances in navigation, cartography, and military
technology
1.4.IV Renaissance and Reformation debates
2.3.I Arguments over exclusion of women from political life
2.3.II New public venues and print media; Europeans
exposed to representations of peoples outside Europe
2.3.III Challenge of new political and economic theories
2.3.IV Natural religion; religious toleration
2.3.VI Revival of public sentiment and feeling
3.2.III Cult of domesticity
3.3.I Radical and republican advocates of surage and
citizenship
3.3.III Feminists and feminist movements
3.5.II Industrial and technological developments
3.5.III Imperial encounters with non-European peoples
4.4.II Family responsibilities, economic changes, and
feminism
4.4.III Gay and lesbian movements
OS-4 Evaluate the extent
to which new theories of
government and political
ideologies continued to
incorporate traditional
explanations based on
religious beliefs.
1.1.I New methods of scholarship and new values
1.1.II Invention of printing
1.2.1 Protestant and Catholic reformations
1.5.I Concept of sovereign state and secular systems of law
1.5.II State system of authority
2.1.I Absolute monarchy
2.1.II Alternatives to absolutism
2.1.IV Liberal revolution; radical Jacobin republic
2.3.I Political models of Locke and Rousseau
2.3.II New public venues and print media
2.3.III Political theories, such as John Locke’s
2.3.IV Natural religion; religious toleration
3.3.I Ideologies
3.4.I Political revolts and revolutions
4.2.II Fascist rejection of democracy; glorication of war
and nationalism
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Thematic Learning Objectives
Learning Objectives
Students are able to ... Relevant Topics in the Concept Outline
OS-5 Explain the
emergence, spread, and
questioning of scientic,
technological, and positivist
approaches to addressing
social problems.
2.3.I Application of principles of the Scientic Revolution
to society and human institutions
2.3.II New public venues and print media
3.2.III Labor laws and social welfare programs
3.3.I Liberal, radical, republican, and socialist ideologies
3.3.II Government responses to industrialization
3.3.III Responses of political movements and social
organizations
3.6.II Turn toward a realist and materialist worldview
3.6.III New relativism and loss of condence in objectivity of
knowledge
4.3.I Challenges to the belief in progress
4.3.II Benets and challenges of science and technology
OS-6 Explain how
individualism, subjectivity,
and emotion came to be
considered valid sources of
knowledge over time.
1.1.I Humanists valued the individual
1.1.III Renaissance art incorporated the new ideas
2.3.V Emphasis on private life in the arts
2.3.VI Revival of public sentiment and feeling
3.3.I Liberal, radical, and republican emphasis on
individual rights
3.6.I Romanticism’s emphasis on intuition and emotion
3.6.III Relativism in values and emphasis on subjective
sources of knowledge
4.2.II Fascist nationalism
4.3.I Challenge to condence in science and human reason
4.3.IV Self-expression and subjectivity in the arts;
experimentation in the arts
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Thematic Learning Objectives
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Learning Objectives
Students are able to ... Relevant Topics in the Concept Outline
OS-7 Explain how the
values of individualism,
subjectivity, and emotion
were expressed in dierent
political ideologies and
cultural and artistic forms.
1.1.I Humanists valued the individual
1.1.III Visual arts incorporated Renaissance ideas
2.3.III Political theories proposed social contract theory
2.3.V Emphasis on private life in the arts
2.3.VI Revival of public sentiment and feeling
3.3.I Liberal, radical, and republican emphasis on
individual rights
3.4.II National unication and liberal reform
3.6.I Romanticism’s emphasis on intuition and emotion,
Romantic break with Neoclassical forms and
rationalism
3.6.III Relativism in values and emphasis on subjective
sources of knowledge; shift to subjective, abstract,
and expressive in the arts
4.1.III Developments of the interwar period resulting in
World War II and a challenge to European civilization
4.2.II Fascist nationalism
4.3.I Challenge to condence in science and human reason
4.3.II Science and technology benetted and posed
challenges: “objective knowledge”
4.3.IV Experimentation, self-expression, and subjectivity in
the arts
OS-8 Evaluate the extent to
which, over time, religion
shifted from a matter of
public concern to one of
private belief.
1.1.I Humanist secular models for individual and political
behavior
1.2.I New interpretations of Christian doctrine and practice
1.2.II Religious reform and state authority
1.2.III Adoption of religious pluralism
1.4.V Popular culture impacted social norms
2.3.I Enlightenment thought, challenged prevailing patterns
of thought.
2.3.IV Rational analysis of religious practices
2.3.V Arts increased focus on private life and public good
2.3.VI Enlightenment values challenged by public expression
of emotions and feelings
4.3.III Continued role of organized religion
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Thematic Learning Objectives
This theme focuses on the development of various forms of government and civil institutions
since 1450 and the social, cultural, and economic impact of political change.
After 1450, the old ideal that Europe constituted a unied Christendom was weakened by the
rise of sovereign states. These states asserted a monopoly over law and the management of
all institutions, including the church. The growth of secular power played a critical role in the
success of the Protestant Reformation, and states gained increasing inuence over religious
aairs. With the military revolution of the early modern period, states and political leaders
sought new and better sources of revenue, and it spurred the expansion of state control over
political and economic functions.
European polities took a variety of forms—empires, nation-states, and small republics.
Absolute monarchies concentrated all authority in a single person who was regarded as
divinely ordained, whereas in constitutional governments, power was shared between the
monarch and representative institutions. Early modern advances in education, publishing, and
prosperity created public opinion and civil society independent of government—developments
that supported and were promoted by Enlightenment theories of natural rights and the social
contract. Political revolutions and industrialization shifted governance from monarchies and
aristocracies to parliamentary institutions that both generated and embodied the rule of law
while gradually widening the participation of citizens in governance through the extension of
surage. The late 19th century saw the proliferation of political parties and the rise of mass
politics. European states became more responsive to public opinion, and newly expanded
government bureaucracies played an increasingly important role in the lives of average
Europeans. After World War I, under the pressure of political and economic crises, totalitarian
regimes threatened parliamentary governments.
The European state system, which originated in the Peace of Westphalia and shaped
diplomatic relations through World War I, assumed that the continent would be divided into
independent sovereign states and that war and diplomacy would be the normal means of
interstate relations. In the 19th century, the goal of establishing and maintaining a balance
of power was challenged by the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, the emergence of new
nation-states such as Italy and Germany, the transformation of traditional empires, and
shifts in the alliance system. Overseas competition and the growing inuence of nationalism
undermined diplomatic eorts to stave o war in the rst half of the 20th century. In the
20th century, new international organizations (the League of Nations, the United Nations,
NGOs) attempted to develop international law and modes of dispute resolution that would
promote peace. After the catastrophe of two world wars, Western European states turned to
the prospects of the European Union (EU) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO),
while in Eastern Europe, the Warsaw Pact allied communist nations with the Soviet Union.
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Thematic Learning Objectives
25
Learning Objectives
Students are able to ... Relevant Topics in the Concept Outline
SP-1 Describe the political
forms and economic roles of
European governments from
1450 to the present.
1.1.III State as patron of the arts; art in service of the state
1.2.II Control over religion
1.2.III Religious wars
1.3.I Colonization and mercantilism
1.5.I New monarchs and rise of nation-state
1.5.III Absolutism and its challengers
2.1.I Absolutism; divine right monarchs
2.1.II English Civil War; the Dutch Republic
2.1.IV French Revolution
2.2.II Commercial revolution
2.3.III Liberalism (Locke and Adam Smith)
3.1.I British industrialization
3.1.II Continental industrialization
3.1.III Second industrial revolution
3.3.I Ideologies of change
3.3.II Government regulation and reform
3.3.III Mass political movements and reform
3.4.I Post-1815 revolutions
3.4.II National unication and nation-building
4.2.I Russian Revolution
4.2.III Great Depression
4.2.IV Economic miracle and welfare state
4.2.V Planned economies in Eastern Europe
4.4.IV Post-1945 European unity
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Thematic Learning Objectives
Learning Objectives
Students are able to ... Relevant Topics in the Concept Outline
SP-2 Explain how and
why the political forms of
European governments have
changed over time.
1.2.II Control over religion
1.2.III Religious wars
1.3.I Colonization and mercantilism
1.5.I New monarchs and rise of nation-state
1.5.III Absolutism and its challengers
2.1.I Absolutism; divine right monarchs
2.1.II English Civil War and the Dutch Republic
2.1.IV French Revolution
2.2.II Commercial revolution
2.3.I Enlightenment natural rights
2.3.II Dissemination of Enlightenment ideas
2.3.III Liberalism (Locke and Adam Smith)
3.1.I British industrialization
3.1.II Continental industrialization
3.1.III Second industrial revolution
3.3.I Ideologies of change
3.3.II Government regulation and reform
3.3.III Mass political movements and reform
3.4.I Post-1815 revolutions
3.4.II National unication and nation-building
4.1.IV Cold War
4.2.I Russian Revolution
4.2.III Great Depression
4.2.IV Economic miracle and welfare state
4.2.V Planned economies in Eastern Europe
4.1.V Post-1945 European unity
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Learning Objectives
Students are able to ... Relevant Topics in the Concept Outline
SP-3 Explain how and
why the economic roles of
European governments have
changed over time.
1.2.III Religious wars
1.3.I Colonization and mercantilism
1.5.I New monarchs and rise of nation-state
1.5.III Absolutism and its challengers
2.1.I Absolutism; divine right monarchs
2.1.II English Civil War; the Dutch Republic
2.1.IV French Revolution
2.2.II Commercial revolution
2.3.I Enlightenment natural rights
2.3.II Dissemination of Enlightenment ideas
2.3.III Liberalism (Locke and Adam Smith)
3.1.I British industrialization
3.1.II Continental industrialization
3.1.III Second industrial revolution
3.3.I Ideologies of change
3.3.II Government regulation and reform
3.3.III Mass political movements and reform
3.4.I Post-1815 revolutions
3.4.II National unication and nation-building
4.1.IV Cold War
4.2.I Russian Revolution
4.2.III Great Depression
4.2.IV Economic miracle and welfare state
4.2.V Planned economies in Eastern Europe
4.4.IV Post-1945 European unity
SP-4 Describe the
emergence and development
of political theories and
practices that stressed the
political importance and
rights of the individual.
1.1.I Civic humanism and secular theories
1.5.III Limits to absolutism
2.1.II Challenges to absolutism and constitutionalism
2.1.IV French Revolution
2.3.I Enlightenment principles
2.3.III Social contract and capitalism
3.3.I Political ideologies—ideologies of liberation
3.3.II Growth of regulatory states
3.3.III Political movements and parties; mass movements
and reform
3.4.I Revolutions from 1815–1848
3.4.II Nationalism and unication
4.3.II Industrialized warfare
4.4.II Women’s rights
4.4.III Dissenting groups in politics
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Thematic Learning Objectives
Learning Objectives
Students are able to ... Relevant Topics in the Concept Outline
SP-5 Explain how the
relationship between states
and ecclesiastical authority
changed over time.
1.1.I Secular political theories
1.2.II Reformation and religious conict
1.2.III Religious wars
1.5.I State control over religion
2.1.I Absolutist religious policies
2.1.IV French Revolution’s attack on religion
2.1.V Napoleon and the Concordat of 1801
2.3.IV Religious toleration
3.3.I Political ideologies and religion
3.4.I Conservatism
4.3.III Second Vatican Council and immigration
SP-6 Explain how religious
belief aected politics
and how the principle of
religious toleration emerged
and changed over time.
1.1.I Secular political theories
1.2.II Reformation and religious conict
1.2.III Religious wars
1.5.I State control over religion
2.1.I Absolutist religious policies
2.1.IV French Revolution’s attack on religion
2.1.V Napoleon and the Concordat of 1801
2.3.IV Religious toleration
3.3.I Political ideologies and religion
3.4.I Congress of Vienna/Concert of Europe decisions
4.1.VI Post–World War II religious conicts
4.3.III Second Vatican Council and immigration
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Learning Objectives
Students are able to ... Relevant Topics in the Concept Outline
SP-7 Explain how and why
European governments have
moved toward or reacted
against representative and
democratic principles and
practices.
2.1.I Absolute monarchy
2.1.IV French Revolution—women and minorities
2.3.I Natural rights
2.3.IV Religious toleration (Jews)
3.3.I Ideologies of liberalism
3.3.III Workers, feminists, and reform
3.5.III Responses to imperialism (nationalism)
4.1.II World War I settlement
4.1.III Nazi aggression and Blitzkrieg
4.1.VI Decolonization
4.2.I Bolshevik Revolution and Stalin
4.2.II Rise of fascism
4.2.V Collapse of communism
4.4.II Feminism
4.4.III Post-1945 critics and dissenters
SP-8 Explain how and why
civic institutions developed
apart from governments
and the impact they had on
European states over time.
1.2.II Religious reform impacts state authority; religious
minorities
1.5.III Monarchs, corporate groups, and minority language
groups impacted governmental authority
2.1.II England; the Dutch Republic
2.1.IV French Revolution
2.3.I Enlightenment ideals
2.3.II Growth of civil society; salons, academies, lodges
2.3.III Locke and Adam Smith
3.3.I Ideologies of change
3.3.II Groups and social organizations respond to Industrial
Revolution changes
3.3.III Mass political movements and parties; labor and
trade unions; private charitable/philanthropic groups’
responses
4.2.V Various groups and developments in communist bloc
4.4.II Women and feminism
4.4.III Post-1945 dissenting groups
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Thematic Learning Objectives
Learning Objectives
Students are able to ... Relevant Topics in the Concept Outline
SP-9 Explain how and why
changes in warfare aected
diplomacy, the European
state system, and the
balance of power.
1.2.III Religious conicts
1.3.I Exploration and colonization
1.3.II Advanced in technology
1.3.III Colonial empires
1.5.II Peace of Westphalia and balance of power; early
modern military revolution
2.1.III Dynastic and colonial wars
2.1.IV French revolutionary wars
2.1.V Wars of Napoleon, Napoleonic tactics and warfare
2.2.III Commercial rivalries and warfare
3.4.I Congress of Vienna and Concert of Europe
3.4.II Crimean War
3.4.III Unication of Germany and Italy
3.5.I National rivalries
3.5.II Second industrial revolution and imperialism
4.1.I World War I; total war
4.1.II Versailles Settlement
4.1.III Interwar period developments; Appeasement and
World War II
4.1.IV Cold War; nuclear weapons
4.1.VI Decolonization
4.2.I Bolshevik Revolutions and Stalin
4.2.II Fascist aggressions
4.3.II Genocide and nuclear war
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Learning Objectives
Students are able to ... Relevant Topics in the Concept Outline
SP-10 Explain how the
concept of a balance of
power emerged, developed,
and eventually became
institutionalized over time.
1.5.I Italy and Machiavelli
1.5.II Competitive state system changed diplomacy
2.1.IV Fraternité and citizen armies
2.1.III Louis XIV; English and French rivalry
2.1.V Napoleonic warfare
3.3.I Post-1815 nationalism
3.4.I Congress of Vienna and Metternich
3.4.II Conservative Realpolitik ; Crimean War and
Conservative nationalism
3.4.III Unication of Italy and Germany
3.5.I Imperialism; nationalism as a motive for imperialism
3.5.III Imperial rivalries; conicts and colonial nationalism
4.1.I Nationalism as cause of World War I
4.1.II National self-determination and League of Nations
4.1.III Fascism and “new racial order”
4.1.IV Cold War and collapse of communism
4.1.V Post-1945 nationalist and separatist movements
4.1.VI Colonial independence movements
4.2.II Fascism and extreme nationalism
4.4.III Immigration and anti-immigration groups
4.4.IV European unity
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Thematic Learning Objectives
This theme focuses on changes to family, class, and social groups in European history, on
how these have changed in form and in status, and on the impact of such changes for both the
individual and society.
Early modern society was divided into the three estates: clergy, nobility, and commoners
(the latter including merchants, townspeople, and the overwhelming majority, the peasantry).
Within those estates, family and landed wealth shaped social practices, as did religious
beliefs and practices. Access to resources and opportunities remained unequal even within
estates, and the poorest members of society served as both objects of charity or problems to
be controlled. With the advent of the Reformation, new Protestant denominations challenged
each other and the Catholic Church, establishing new religious practices and social inuence.
Marriage and family life were constrained by the values of the community and closely
prescribed norms. Gathering resources to create a new household often required young
adults to work and save for a period of years, and a late age of marriage for commoners
(the European family pattern) tended to limit demographic growth. In preindustrial Europe,
women’s and men’s work was complementary rather than separate, since peasants worked
communally to bring in the harvest, oversee journeymen and apprentices, keep nancial
records, and market products. Women played active roles in movements of cultural and social
change, while gender norms continued to stress women’s intellectual inferiority and their duty
to obey fathers and husbands. Women’s access to institutional power remained limited, even
as the Protestant Reformation placed new emphasis on the role of women in the family as
mothers and assistants in religious instruction and schooling.
Demographic growth spurred social change in the 18th century. The Enlightenment brought a
new emphasis on childhood as a stage of life, and the ideal of companionate marriage began
to compete with arranged marriages. The French Revolution formally ended the division
of society into three estates and continued to challenge traditional society throughout the
19th century, though remnants of the old order persisted into the 20th century. The Industrial
Revolution created a division of social classes based on new criteria of capital and labor. The
revolutionary emphasis on liberty galvanized many excluded groups to take an active role in
politics, and the language of natural rights spurred the development of movements of equality,
such as feminism and the end of feudalism and serfdom. The growth of the middle classes in
the 19th century tended to anchor men and women in separate spheres and elevate women’s
role in the home into “the cult of domesticity.” Early industrialism negatively aected the
working classes and, more generally, shifted the family from a unit of production to one of
consumption.
By the late 19th century, a new mass society had emerged dened by consumerism,
expanding literacy, and new forms of leisure. The “woman question” that had emerged in
the 17th century took on a new intensity as women sought economic and legal rights. World
War I profoundly aected European society by conclusively ending the residual hold of old
elites on power and democratizing society through shared sacrice, and women obtained the
right to vote in several European nations. Between the wars, Soviet communism theoretically
endorsed equality, though women often performed double duty as laborers and mothers; on
the other hand, fascist regimes re-emphasized a domestic role for women and created states
based on a mythical racial identity. After World War II, the welfare state emerged in Western
Europe with more support for families, choices in reproduction, and state-sponsored health
care; economic recovery brought new consumer choices and popular culture. By contrast,
in the Soviet bloc, where individual choices were directed by the state, family life was
constrained and economic life was dedicated to heavy industry rather than the production of
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consumer goods, though basic needs were provided within an authoritarian context. The end
of the Cold War and the rise of the EU brought some shared social values to light and created
more pluralistic European societies, but contested issues, such as the role of immigrants—
whether former colonial subjects, migrant workers, or refugees—have yet to be resolved.
Learning Objectives
Students are able to ... Relevant Topics in the Concept Outline
IS-1 Explain the role of
technology in forming
and transforming
European society.
1.1.II Printing press and the Renaissance and Reformation
1.3.II Exploration and colonization
1.4.I Rise of commercial and professional groups; nancial
and commercial innovation
1.4.II Price revolution and commercial agriculture
1.4.III Urban expansion and problems
2.2.I Agricultural Revolution; cottage industry
2.3.II Civil society and publishing
2.4.IV Urban migration and poverty
3.1.II Industrialization
3.1.III Second industrial revolution and mass production
3.2.I Industrialization and bourgeoisie
3.2.IV Transportation and consumerism
3.3.II Governmental reform of infrastructure
3.5.II Industry and empire
4.4.I Technology as destructive and improving standard of
living
IS-2 Explain how family
life, relations between
social groups, and ideas
about gender have
changed over time.
1.4.I Hierarchy and social status
1.4.II Subsistence agriculture
1.4.IV Family economy; gender roles; European marriage
pattern
1.4.V Folk culture and communal norms
2.4.II Consumerism and privacy in the home
2.4.III European marriage pattern; new concepts of
childhood
3.2.I New industrial classes
3.2.III Protective legislation; leisure, companionate
marriage; domesticity
3.3.I Socialism and anarchism
3.3.III Worker movements and reformers
3.4.I Post-1815 revolutions
4.2.I Russian and Bolshevik revolutions
4.4.II Women in the workforce, feminism and the baby boom
4.4.III Feminism and gay and lesbian movements
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Thematic Learning Objectives
Learning Objectives
Students are able to ... Relevant Topics in the Concept Outline
IS-3 Explain how and
why tensions have arisen
between the individual
and society over the
course of European
history.
1.3.IV Slave trade
1.4.I New economic elites and hierarchy
2.1.I Nobles and absolutism
2.1.IV French Revolution attack on feudalism/manorialism
2.1.V Napoleon and meritocracy
2.2.II Expansion of slave trade
3.2.I Industrialization and class
3.2.III Middle- and working-class families
3.3.I Post-1815 ideologies
3.3.III Mass political movements and governmental reform
3.5.III Interaction with colonies; responses by colonies
3.6.II Social Darwinism and Marxism
4.1.I World War I and total war on the home front
4.1.III Nazi racism and the Holocaust
4.1.V Post-1945 nationalist and separatist movements
4.2.I Russian Revolution and civil war
4.2.II Spanish Civil War and World War II
4.3.I Destructive eects of technology
4.4.I Total war and genocide
4.4.III Youth, gay and lesbian, and immigrant dissenters
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Learning Objectives
Students are able to ... Relevant Topics in the Concept Outline
IS-4 Explain how and
why the status of specic
groups within society has
changed over time.
1.2.I Religious minorities
1.2.II State authority over religion and religious groups
1.3.I Colonial conquest
1.4.III Urban migrants and regulation of morals
1.4.IV Renaissance and Reformation
1.4.V Communal norms and witchcraft
2.1.IV Reign of Terror and counterrevolution
2.1.V Napoleonic empire and Napoleonic era
2.3.I Enlightenment
2.3.II Salons
2.4.II Consumerism and family life; privacy
2.4.III Commercial revolution
3.1.II Persistence of serfdom and feudalism
3.2.III Industrialization; protective legislation; leisure
3.3.I Nationalism, anti-Semitism, and chauvinism:
post-1815 ideologies of change
3.3.III Mass political movements and feminism
3.5.I Racial Darwinism and “The White Man’s Burden”
3.5.III Imperial-inuenced art and colonial independence
movements
3.6.II Social Darwinism
4.1.III
4.1.VI
Fascist racism and the Holocaust
Post-1945 nationalist and separatist movements
4.1.VI Mandates and decolonization
4.2.I Kulaks and great purges
4.2.II Fascist propaganda
4.2.V Balkan conicts and wars
4.3.III Continued role of organized religion
4.4.I Total war and genocide
4.4.II Military production; economic recovery; post-1945
feminism
4.4.III Post-1945 dissenting groups; migrant workers and
immigration
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Thematic Learning Objectives
Learning Objectives
Students are able to ... Relevant Topics in the Concept Outline
IS-5 Explain how
identities such as
ethnicity, race, gender,
religious aliation, and
class have aected the
individual’s relationship
to society from 1450 to
the present.
1.3.IV Slave trade
1.4.I New economic elites and hierarchy
1.4.IV Family economy; Renaissance and Reformation
debates on women
1.4.V Communal norms and enforcement
2.1.IV French Revolution
2.1.V Napoleon and meritocracy; Napoleonic Code
2.2.II Expansion of slave trade
2.3.I Enlightenment and natural rights
3.2.I Industrialization and class
3.2.III Middle- and working-class families; companionate
marriage; domesticity
3.3.I Post-1815 ideologies—Radicalism and feminism
3.3.III Mass political movements and governmental reform;
feminism and women in reform movements
3.5.III Interaction with colonies; responses by colonies
3.6.II Social Darwinism and Marxism
4.1.III Nazi racism and the Holocaust
4.1.V Post-1945 nationalist and separatist movements
4.4.I Total war and genocide
4.4.II Total war, post-1945 feminism, and political
opportunities
4.4.III Youth, gay and lesbian, and immigrant dissenters
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Theme 6: National and European Identity (NI)
This theme focuses on how and why denitions and perceptions of regional, cultural,
national, and European identity have developed and been challenged over time.
Since 1450, Europeans have understood their place in the world based on their membership
in various and sometimes overlapping entities, ranging from small local groupings to fully
developed nation-states and multinational organizations. Questions concerning identity
have remained constant, even as shifting political, social, economic, religious, and cultural
developments, such as the intensely patriotic calls for greater national unity in the 19th
century, have brought new units and aliations into being. In the early modern period,
Europeans identied with language groups and political units of varying sizes, such as the
Renaissance-era city-state. Early modern Europeans also identied with emerging nation-
states such as a unied Spain under King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, imperial dynasties
such as the Habsburg Holy Roman Empire, and the idea of a unied Christendom.
In the 17th and 18th centuries, monarchs like Louis XIV of France and Peter the Great of Russia
built upon a common language and cultural identity in their respective countries to foster the
development of national cultures centered around the creation of new types of institutions.
In England, after a civil war and period of political experimentation, a system of government
emerged where the power of the monarchy was checked by an increasingly bold Parliament.
These countries also created national symbols that inspired loyalty in their subjects, though
senses of national aliation were always subject to challenges and change, and were not
equally powerful across Europe. Meanwhile, the intellectual movement of the Enlightenment,
coupled with French revolutionary ideals, oered a dierent vision of European identity based
on a shared belief in reason, citizenship, and other Enlightenment values.
In the 19th century, countries like Germany, Italy, and the Kingdom of the Netherlands were
unied through wars, political negotiations, and the promotion of intense feelings of national
belonging. At the same time, Romantic writers and artists fostered and built upon feelings of
loyalty to the nation, producing works appealing to a common language or cultural identity.
However, in the multinational empires that dominated central and eastern Europe until World
War I, nationalism also served as a divisive force. At the same time, regional identities based
on units either greater or smaller than that of the nation-state—e.g. Basque, Bavarian, pan-
Slav, Flemish, or Irish—remained popular and inuential throughout much of Europe. And
even at the height of nationalism, for many workers socialism and the international struggle
of the working class competed with nationalism as a framework for identication and loyalty.
Especially with the growth of mass politics and media, western Europeans could also identify
as part of a larger global entity, whether “overseas France,” or the British Empire and in
the 20th century the British Commonwealth—each of which was assumed to have a unique
mission and position in the world.
After World War I, with the exception of the emergent Soviet Union, Europe was dominated
by nation-states. In central and eastern Europe, some states were riven with conicts, and
minorities that found themselves in vulnerable positions turned to the international League of
Nations for protection. During World War II, Germany sought to create a pan-European empire
based on an extreme version of German national identity and power. During the second half of
the 20th century, as Europeans recovered from the strain of two world wars, Western European
empires fractured and transformed into new political units. As they reconceived their role in a
postwar world, Europeans could now identify with larger transnational organizations, such as the
European Coal and Steel Community, or the community of countries assembled under NATO or
the Warsaw Pact. Europeans have increasingly identied as members of the EU, even as regional
and national aliations continue to call into question the idea of a shared European identity.
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Thematic Learning Objectives
This reconception of Europe has not been without diculties, as Britain’s late entry into the
European community and subsequent decision to leave the EU illustrate. Europe as a concept
has been and remains complex, evolving, and subject to changing perceptions, regulations, and
legal frameworks. European identities since 1450 have been a uid concept, with overlapping and
non-competing identities enduring even in the age of nation-states. As new national entities form,
merge, and in some instances disappear, these developments help shape popular understanding
of what it means to be European.
Learning Objectives
Students are able to ... Relevant Topics in the Concept Outline
NI-1 Explain how and
why national identities
were created, developed,
and challenged.
1.1.II Invention of printing; spread of new cultural ideas
1.2.II Growing state control of religious institutions during
the Reformation; challenges to state authority
1.2.III Growing religious, political, and economic competition
between states
1.3.I Expansion and the enhancement of state power
1.3.III Competition between states for territories
1.5.I New ideas about state sovereignty and political
institutions
1.5.III Struggles between monarchs and various corporate
and minority language groups
2.1.I Absolutism and state centralization
2.1.II Challenges to absolutism and the creation of
alternative political systems
2.1.IV French Revolution as a challenge to the existing social
and political order
2.1.V Nationalist reactions to Napoleon
2.2.III Commercial rivalries
2.3.IV Enlightenment values; revival of emotion and
sentiment
2.3.V Eighteenth-century art and citizenship
2.3.VI Emotion and nationalism in the early 19th century
3.1.II Industrialization and German unication
3.1.III Technology and the integration of national economies
3.3.I Ideologies as responses to industrialization and
revolution
3.3.II State responses to the problems of industrialization.
3.3.III Social responses to the problems of industrialization
3.4.I Concert of Europe
3.4.II Nationalist movements
3.4.III German and Italian unication
3.5.I Imperial expansion in the 19th century
3.5.III Rise of nationalist movements in colonies
3.6.I Romantic emphasis on intuition and emotion
3.6.II Impact of 1848
4.1.I Nationalism and the outbreak of the First World War
4.1.III Radical nationalism and fascism/Nazism
4.1.V Nationalist movements in Africa and Asia
4.2.I Fascist ideology and nationalism
4.2.V New nationalism in Eastern and Central Europe
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Learning Objectives
Students are able to ... Relevant Topics in the Concept Outline
NI-2 Explain how and
why cultural, regional,
and other social
identities coexisted with
national identities and
occasionally challenged
the notion of a unied
nation or empire.
1.2.I Challenges to monarchical control of religion
1.2.III Conict between dierent religious groups
1.4.V Continued inuence of local identities
1.5.I Demise of unied Christendom; Peace of Westphalia
1.5.III Tension between monarchs and corporate and
minority language groups
2.1.I Polish partition
2.1.IV Class grievances in the French Revolution
2.3.I Enlightenment challenges to traditional institutions
2.3.III Challenges to absolutism
3.1.III Increasing economic globalization
3.2.I Emerging class consciousness during
industrialization
3.3.I Radical political thought; rise of Zionism
3.4.I Conservative suppression of nationalism; revolutions
of 1848
3.5.III Nationalist movements in colonies
4.1.I Global nature of First World War
4.1.II Versailles Settlement and the League of Nations
4.1.III Rise of Soviet Union
4.1.IV United Nations; Cold War; NATO; collapse of
Soviet Union
4.1.V Separatist movements; ethnic cleansing
4.1.VI Decolonization
4.2.I Russian Revolution; Marxist-Leninist thought
4.2.II Fascism; communism
4.2.IV Marshall Plan
4.2.V Soviet dominance of Eastern Europe
4.3.I Postmodernism
4.4.I Globalization
4.4.III Postwar immigration
4.4.IV European Integration
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Thematic Learning Objectives
Learning Objectives
Students are able to ... Relevant Topics in the Concept Outline
NI-3 Explain how
and why political,
economic, and religious
developments challenged
or reinforced the idea of a
unied Europe from 1450
to the present.
1.2.II Religious pluralism and religious divisions; state
control of religious institutions
1.2.III Conict among dierent religious groups
1.3.I Economic motives for overseas expansion
1.3.III Trade networks; commercial rivalries
1.4.I Money economy; increased trade
1.5.I New monarchies and state centralization; growth of
secular states
1.5.III Struggle between monarchs and corporate and
minority language groups
2.1.I Absolutism; Partition of Poland
2.1.III Peace of Westphalia
2.1.V Napoleonic rule in Europe
2.2.I Rise of global economy
2.2.II Overseas trade
2.3.IV Enlightenment challenges to religious worldviews
2.4.II Consumer revolution
3.1.I British industrial dominance
3.2.I New class identities
3.3.I Socialist/Marxist thought; national unication;
Zionism
3.3.II Liberal interventionism; compulsory education
3.3.III Mass politics; worker movements
3.4.I Conservative suppression of nationalism
3.4.II Dual monarchy in Austria-Hungary
3.5.I Quest for raw materials
4.1.III Fascism/Nazism; radical nationalism
4.1.IV Cold War; COMECON
4.1.V Ethnic cleansing
National self-determination4.1.VI
4.2.I Economic modernization of Soviet Union
4.2.II Fascist/Nazi propaganda
4.2.III Economic depression
4.2.IV Marshall Plan; welfare states
4.2.V Communist economic planning; Gorbachev’s
economic reforms
4.3.I Impact of the Depression
4.3.III Secularism; persistence of religious identities
4.4.I Post-war consumer culture
4.4.III Economic miracle; postwar immigration
4.4.IV Transnational identities
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Thematic Learning Objectives
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Learning Objectives
Students are able to ... Relevant Topics in the Concept Outline
NI-4 Explain how
overseas expansion,
warfare, and international
diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication
of themselves as
members of national,
cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
1.2.III Wars of religion
1.3.I Colonial expansion; rise of mercantilism
1.3.III Colonial competition
1.3.IV Exposure to overseas goods and peoples
1.5.I Thirty Years’ War; Peace of Westphalia
1.5.II Military revolution; Peace of Westphalia; balance of
power
2.1.III Peace of Westphalia; Battle of Vienna; Louis XIV’s
wars
2.1.IV French revolutionary wars
2.1.V Napoleonic control of Europe
2.2.II Growth of overseas trade
2.2.III Colonial and commercial rivalries
2.3.VI Revolution- and war-inspired emotional attachments
to the nation
3.4.I Revolutions of 1848
3.4.II Crimean War
3.4.III Garibaldi’s military campaigns in Italy
3.5.I Competition for colonies
3.5.II European military supremacy
3.5.III Diplomatic tensions over colonies
3.6.III Social Darwinism
4.1.I Diplomatic tensions leading to First World War;
Russian Revolution; global nature of First World War
4.1.II Wilsonian ideas; Leagues of Nations; Versailles
Settlement
4.1.III Fascism and radical nationalism
4.1.IV Cold War; NATO; COMECON
4.1.VI National self-determination; decolonization
4.2.I Russian Revolution
4.2.II Spanish Civil War
4.4.I Impact of Total War; genocide
4.4.IV European integration
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© 2017 The College Board
AP European History Course and Exam Description
42
Thematic Learning Objectives
III. Concept Outline
The concept outline is structured around four chronological periods, each composed of key
concepts typically encountered in college-level European history courses. In order for students
to develop an understanding of these concepts, teachers will need to select specic historical
gures, groups, events, developments, and processes—and the primary and secondary source
documents through which they can be examined—that enable students to investigate them. In
this way, AP teachers create their own local curriculum for AP European History.
Historical Periods
The historical periods, from approximately 1450 to the present, provide a temporal framework
for the course.
The instructional importance and assessment weighting for each period is equal.
Period 1: c. 1450 to c. 1648
Period 2: c. 1648 to c. 1815
Period 3: c. 1815 to c. 1914
Period 4: c. 1914 to the Present
Teaching Earlier Periods
AP European History focuses on topics in modern European history from the mid-15th through
the 21st centuries, and the AP European History Exam will assess understanding of only those
topics. However, to gain a deeper appreciation of the themes and patterns in European history,
many instructors nd it useful to introduce the course with elements of earlier periods, such as
ancient, classical, or medieval history. Information on Greek and Roman attitudes, for example,
would help students understand the signicance of how Renaissance artists and scholars
made use of ancient thought in their work. Similarly, a discussion of Catholic theology from
Augustine through the late middle ages would help students appreciate the impact of such
thought on later European intellectual, cultural, social, and political beliefs, as well as religious
conicts during the Reformation and the wars of religion. Exposure to primary and secondary
sources in these periods would also give students more practice with the skill of analyzing
historical evidence. Using earlier periods to establish the thematic foundations of the course in
this way can help students deepen their understanding of modern Europe’s history.
Using the Concept Outline to Plan Instruction
In the pages that follow, thematic learning objectives are provided to show teachers how the
learning objectives can be applied to the various statements in the concept outline and to also
help teachers make thematic connections across the outline’s chronology.
The illustrative examples (set out in the third column of the outline) provide optional
examples of possible individuals, events, developments, geographic regions, and/or historical
processes teachers might choose to address for a particular concept. As requested by teachers
who have provided feedback on the course framework throughout its development, these
illustrative examples demonstrate a variety of examples from dierent geographic regions and/
or to expand on content that may be less familiar to teachers. Teachers may opt to use these
illustrative examples or others of their own choosing.
Return to Table of Contents
© 2017 The College Board
AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
43
c. 1450 –c. 1648
c. 1648–c. 1815 c. 1815–c. 1914 c. 1914–PRESENT
PERIOD 1:
c. 1450 – c. 1648
c. 1450– c. 1648
c. 1648 –c. 1815 c. 1815 – c. 1914 c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 1.1
Renaissance intellectuals and artists revived classical motifs in the ne arts and classical
values in literature and education. Intellectuals—later called humanists—employed new
methods of textual criticism based on a deep knowledge of Greek and Latin, and revived
classical ideas that made human beings the measure of all things. Artists formulated new
styles based on ancient models. The humanists remained Christians while promoting ancient
philosophical ideas and classical texts. Artists and architects such as Brunelleschi, Leonardo,
Michelangelo, and Raphael gloried human potential and the human form in the visual arts,
basing their art on classical models while using new techniques of painting and drawing,
such as geometric perspective. The invention of the printing press in the mid-15th century
accelerated the development and dissemination of these new attitudes, notably in Europe
north of the Alps (the Northern Renaissance).
During the 16th and 17th centuries, Europeans developed new approaches to and methods
for looking at the natural world in what historians have called the Scientic Revolution.
Aristotle’s classical cosmology and Ptolemy’s astronomical system came under increasing
scrutiny from natural philosophers (later called scientists) such as Copernicus, Galileo, and
Newton. The philosophers Francis Bacon and René Descartes articulated comprehensive
theories of inductive and deductive reasoning to give the emerging scientic method a sound
foundation. Bacon urged the collection and analysis of data about the world and spurred
the development of an international community of natural philosophers dedicated to the
vast enterprise of what came to be called natural science. In medicine, the new approach to
knowledge led physicians such as William Harvey to undertake observations that produced
new explanations of anatomy and physiology and to challenge the traditional theory of health
and disease (the four humors) espoused by Galen in the second century.
The articulation of natural laws, often expressed mathematically, became the goal of science,
especially after the Europeans’ encounters with the Western Hemisphere. The explorations
produced new knowledge of geography and the world’s peoples through direct observation,
and this seemed to give credence to new approaches to knowledge more generally. Yet while
they developed inquiry-based epistemologies, Europeans also continued to draw upon long-
standing explanations of the natural world.
Key Concept 1.2
Late medieval reform movements in the church (including lay piety, mysticism, and Christian
humanism) created a momentum that propelled a new generation of 16th-century reformers,
such as Erasmus and Martin Luther. After 1517, when Luther posted his 95 Theses criticizing
ecclesiastical abuses and the doctrines that led to them, Christianity fragmented, even though
religious uniformity remained the ideal. Some states, such as Spain and Portugal, which
had recently expelled Muslims and Jews, held fast to this ideal. Others did not, notably the
Netherlands and lands under Ottoman control, which accepted Jewish refugees. In central
Europe, the Peace of Augsburg (1555) permitted each state of the Holy Roman Empire to be
either Catholic or Lutheran at the option of the prince. By the late 16th century, northern
European countries were generally Protestant and Mediterranean countries generally Catholic.
To re-establish order after a period of religious warfare, France introduced limited toleration
of the minority Calvinists within a Catholic kingdom (Edict of Nantes, 1598; revoked in 1685).
Jews remained a marginalized minority wherever they lived.
c. 1450 –c. 1648
c. 1648–c. 1815 c. 1815–c. 1914 c. 1914–PRESENT
Diering conceptions of salvation and the individual’s relationship to the church were at the
heart of the conicts among Luther, subsequent Protestant reformers such as Calvin and the
Anabaptists, and the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church armed its traditional theology
at the Council of Trent (1545–1563), ruling out any reconciliation with the Protestants and
inspiring the resurgence of Catholicism in the 17th century. Religious conicts merged with
and exacerbated long-standing political tensions between the monarchies and nobility across
Europe, dramatically escalating these conicts as they spread from the Holy Roman Empire to
France, the Netherlands, and England. Economic issues such as the power to tax and control
ecclesiastical resources further heightened these clashes. All three motivations—religious,
political, and economic—contributed to the brutal and destructive Thirty Years’ War, which
was ended by the Peace of Westphalia (1648). The treaty established a new balance of power
with a weakened Holy Roman Empire. The Peace of Westphalia also added Calvinism to
Catholicism and Lutheranism as an accepted religion in the Holy Roman Empire, ensuring
the permanence of European religious pluralism. However, pluralism did not mean religious
freedom; the prince or ruler still controlled the religion of the state, and few were tolerant of
dissenters.
Key Concept 1.3
From the 15th through the 17th centuries, Europeans used their mastery of the seas to
extend their power in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. In the 15th century, the Portuguese
sought direct access by sea to the sources of African gold, ivory, and slaves. At the same
time, the rise of Ottoman power in the eastern Mediterranean led to Ottoman control of
the Mediterranean trade routes and increased the motivation of Iberians and then northern
Europeans to explore possible sea routes to the east. The success and consequences of these
explorations, and the maritime expansion that followed them, rested on European adaptation
of Muslim and Chinese navigational technology as well as advances in military technology
and cartography. Political, economic, and religious rivalries among Europeans also stimulated
maritime expansion. By the 17th century, Europeans had forged a global trade network that
gradually edged out earlier Muslim and Chinese dominion in the Indian Ocean and the
western Pacic.
In Europe, these successes shifted economic power within Europe from the Mediterranean
to the Atlantic states. In Asia, the Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch competed for control of
trade routes and trading stations. In the Americas, the Spanish and Portuguese led in the
establishment of colonies, followed by the Dutch, French, and English. The pursuit of colonies
was sustained by mercantilist economic theory, which promoted government management
of economic imperatives and policies. The creation of maritime empires was also animated
by the religious fervor sweeping Europe during the Catholic and Protestant reformations.
Global European expansion led to the conversion of indigenous populations in South and
Central America, to an exchange of commodities and crops that enriched European and other
civilizations that became part of the global trading network, and eventually to encounters
and relationships that would have profound eects on Europe. The Columbian Exchange also
unleashed several ecological disasters—notably the death of vast numbers of the Americas’
population in epidemics of European diseases, such as smallpox and measles, against
which the native populations had no defenses. The new Atlantic trading system led to the
establishment of the plantation system in the American colonies and the vast expansion of
the African slave trade.
Key Concept 1.4
In the 16th and 17th centuries, Europeans experienced profound economic and social
changes. The inux of precious metals from the Americas and the gradual recovery of
Europe’s population from the Black Death caused a signicant rise in the cost of goods and
services by the 16th century, known as the price revolution. The new pattern of economic
enterprise and investment that arose from these changes would come to be called capitalism.
Family-based banking houses were supplanted by broadly integrated capital markets in
Genoa, then in Amsterdam, and later in London. These and other urban centers became
increasingly active consumer markets for a variety of luxury goods and commodities. Rulers
soon recognized that capitalist enterprise oered them a revenue source to support state
functions, and the competition among states was extended into the economic arena. The drive
for economic prot and the increasing scale of commerce stimulated the creation of joint-stock
companies to conduct overseas trade and colonization.
These demographic and economic changes altered many Europeans’ daily lives. As
population increased in the 16th century, the price of grain rose and diets deteriorated, all as
monarchs were increasing taxes to support their larger state militaries. All but the wealthy
were vulnerable to food shortages, and even the wealthy had no immunity to recurrent
lethal epidemics. Although hierarchy and privilege continued to dene the social structure,
the nobility and gentry expanded with the infusion of new blood from the commercial and
professional classes. By the mid-17th century, war, economic contraction, and slackening
population growth contributed to the disintegration of older communal values. Growing
numbers of the poor became beggars or vagabonds, straining the traditional systems of
charity and social control. In eastern Europe, commercial development lagged and traditional
social patterns continued; the nobility actually increased its power over the peasantry.
Traditional town governments, dominated by craft guilds and traditional religious institutions,
struggled to address growing poverty. The Reformation and Counter-Reformation stimulated
a drive to regulate public morals, leisure activities, and the distribution of poor relief. In
both town and country, the family remained the dominant unit of production, and marriage
remained an instrument of families’ social and economic strategies. The children of peasants
and craft workers often labored alongside their parents. In the lower orders of society, men
and women did not occupy separate spheres, although they performed dierent tasks.
Economics often dictated later marriages (European marriage pattern). However, there were
exceptions to this pattern: in the cities of Renaissance Italy, men in their early 30s often
married teenaged women, and in eastern Europe, early marriage for both men and women
continued to be the norm. Despite the growth of the market economy in which individuals
increasingly made their own way, leisure activities tended to be communal, rather than
individualistic and consumerist as they are today. Local communities enforced their customs
and norms through crowd action and in some cases, rituals of public shaming.
c. 1450– c. 1648
c. 1648 –c. 1815 c. 1815 – c. 1914 c. 1914–PRESENT
c. 1450 –c. 1648
c. 1648–c. 1815 c. 1815–c. 1914 c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 1.5
Three trends shaped early modern political development: (1) a shift from decentralized power
and authority toward centralization; (2) a shift from a political elite consisting primarily of
hereditary landed nobility toward one open to men distinguished by their education, skills,
and wealth; and (3) a shift from religious toward secular norms of law and justice.
One innovation promoting state centralization and the transformation of the landed nobility
was the new dominance of rearms and artillery on the battleeld. The introduction of
these new technologies, along with changes in tactics and strategy, amounted to a military
revolution that reduced the role of mounted knights and castles, raised the cost of maintaining
military power beyond the means of individual lords, and led to professionalization of the
military on land and sea under the authority of the sovereign. This military revolution
favored rulers who could command the resources required for building increasingly
complex fortications and elding disciplined infantry and artillery units. Monarchs who
could increase taxes and create bureaucracies to collect and spend them on their military
outmaneuvered those who could not.
In general, monarchs gained power through the corporate groups and institutions that had
thrived during the medieval period, notably the landed nobility and the clergy. Commercial
and professional groups, such as merchants, lawyers, and other educated and talented
persons, acquired increasing power in the state—often in alliance with the monarchs—
alongside or in place of these traditional corporate groups. New legal and political theories,
embodied in the codication of law, strengthened state institutions, which increasingly took
control of the social and economic order from traditional religious and local bodies. However,
these developments were not universal. Within states, minority language groups retained a
more local identity that resisted political centralization. In eastern and southern Europe, the
traditional elites maintained their positions in many polities.
The centralization of power within polities took place within and facilitated a new diplomatic
framework among states. Ideals of a universal Christian empire declined along with the power
and prestige of the Holy Roman Empire, which was unable to overcome the challenges of
political localism and religious pluralism. By the end of the Thirty Years’ War, a new state
system had emerged based on sovereign nation-states and the balance of power.
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
OS-1 Explain the roles
traditional sources of
authority—chur
ch and
classical antiquity—have
played in the creation and
transmission of knowledge
at dierent points in Europe’s
history from 1450 to the
present.
OS-2 Explain how political
revolution and war altered the
role of the church in political
and intellectual life, as well
as how religious authorities
and intellectuals responded to
these changes.
OS-3 Explain how traditional
views of authority and forms
of knowledge coexisted with
the scientic method and
reason.
OS-4 Evaluate the extent
to which new theories of
government and political
ideologies continued to
incorporate traditional
explanations based on
religious beliefs.
OS-6 Explain how
individualism, subjectivity,
and emotion came to be
considered valid sources of
knowledge over time.
OS-7 Explain how the values
of individualism, subjectivity,
and emotion were expressed
in dierent political ideologies
and cultural and artistic
forms.
Key Concept 1.1 — The rediscovery of works from ancient Greece
and Rome and observation of the natural world changed many
Europeans’ view of their world.
I. A revival of classical texts led to new methods of scholarship and new
values in both society and religion.
A. Italian Renaissance
humanists, including
Petrarch, promoted a revival
in classical literature and
created new philological
approaches to ancient texts.
Some Renaissance humanists
furthered the values of
secularism and individualism.
Illustrative examples, Italian
Renaissance humanists:
w
Petrarch (pre-1450)
w
Lorenzo Valla
w
Marsilio Ficino
w
Pico della Mirandola
B. Humanist revival of Greek
and Roman texts, spread
by the printing press,
challenged the institutional
power of universities and
the Catholic Church. This
shifted education away from a
primary focus on theological
writings toward classical
texts and new methods of
scientic inquiry.
Illustrative examples, individuals
promoting a revival of Greek and
Roman texts:
w
Leonardo Bruni
w
Leon Battista Alberti
w
Niccolò Machiavelli
C. Admiration for Greek and
Roman political institutions
supported a revival of civic
humanist culture in the Italian
city-states and produced
secular models for individual
and political behavior.
Illustrative examples, individuals
promoting secular models for
individual and political behavior:
w
Niccolò Machiavelli
w
Jean Bodin
w
Baldassare Castiglione
w
Francesco Guicciardini
Period 1: c. 1450–c. 1648
Key Concept 1.1
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
50
Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 1.1 — The rediscovery of works from ancient Greece
and Rome and observation of the natural world changed many
Europeans’ view of their world.
OS-8 Evaluate the extent to
which, over time, religion
shifted from a matter of public
concern to one of private belief.
SP-4 Describe the emergence
and development of political
theories and practices
that stressed the political
importance and rights of the
individual.
SP-5 Explain how the
relationship between states
and ecclesiastical authority
changed over time.
SP-6 Explain how religious
belief aected politics and
how the principle of religious
toleration emerged and
changed over time.
I. A revival of classical texts led to new methods of scholarship and new
values in both society and religion.
(CONTINUED)
Period 1: c. 1450–c. 1648
Key Concept 1.1
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
51
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 1.1 — The rediscovery of works from ancient Greece
and Rome and observation of the natural world changed many
Europeans’ view of their world.
OS-1 Explain the roles
traditional sources of
authority—church and classical
antiquity—have played in the
creation and transmission of
knowledge at dierent points in
Europe’s history from 1450 to
the present.
OS-3 Explain how traditional
views of authority and forms of
knowledge coexisted with the
scientic method and reason.
OS-4 Evaluate the extent
to which new theories of
government and political
ideologies continued to
incorporate traditional
explanations based on religious
beliefs.
IS-1 Explain the role of
technology in forming and
transforming European society.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
II. The invention of printing promoted the dissemination of new ideas.
A. The invention of the printing
press in the 1450s aided in
spreading the Renaissance
beyond Italy and encouraged
the growth of vernacular
literature, which would
eventually contribute to the
development of national
cultures.
B. Protestant reformers used the
printing press to disseminate
their ideas, which spurred
religious reform and helped it
to become widely established.
Illustrative examples, reformers using
press to disseminate ideas:
w
Martin Luther
w
Vernacular Bibles
Period 1: c. 1450–c. 1648
Key Concept 1.1
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
52
Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 1.1 — The rediscovery of works from ancient Greece
and Rome and observation of the natural world changed many
Europeans’ view of their world.
OS-1 Explain the roles
traditional sources of
authority—church and classical
antiquity—have played in the
creation and transmission of
knowledge at dierent points in
Europe’s history from 1450 to
the present.
OS-3 Explain how traditional
views of authority and forms of
knowledge coexisted with the
scientic method and reason.
OS-6 Explain how
individualism, subjectivity, and
emotion came to be considered
valid sources of knowledge over
time.
OS-7 Explain how the values
of individualism, subjectivity,
and emotion were expressed in
dierent political ideologies and
cultural and artistic forms.
SP-1 Describe the political
forms and economic roles of
European governments from
1450 to the present.
III. The visual arts incorporated the new ideas of the Renaissance and were
used to promote personal, political, and religious goals.
A. In the Italian Renaissance,
rulers and popes concerned
with enhancing their prestige
commissioned paintings
and architectural works
based on classical styles, the
developing “naturalism” in
the artistic world, and often
the newly invented technique
of geometric perspective.
Illustrative examples, painters and
architects:
w
Michelangelo
w
Donatello
w
Raphael
w
Andrea Palladio
w
Leon Battista Alberti
Filipo Brunelleschi
w
B. The Northern Renaissance
retained a more religious
focus, which resulted in
more human-centered
naturalism that considered
individuals and everyday life
appropriate objects of artistic
representation.
Illustrative examples, artists who
employed naturalism:
w
Jan Van Eyck
w
Pieter Bruegel the Elder
w
Rembrandt
C. Mannerist and Baroque
artists employed distortion,
drama, and illusion in their
work. Monarchies, city-states,
and the church commissioned
these works as a means of
promoting their own stature
and power.
Illustrative examples, Mannerist and
Baroque artists whose art was used
in new public buildings:
w
El Greco
w
Artemisia Gentileschi
w
Gian Bernini
w
Peter Paul Rubens
Period 1: c. 1450–c. 1648
Key Concept 1.1
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
53
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 1.1 — The rediscovery of works from ancient Greece
and Rome and observation of the natural world changed many
Europeans’ view of their world.
OS-1 Explain the roles
traditional sources of
authority—church and classical
antiquity—have played in the
creation and transmission of
knowledge at dierent points in
Europe’s history from 1450 to
the present.
OS-3 Explain how traditional
views of authority and forms of
knowledge coexisted with the
scientic method and reason.
IV. New ideas in science based on observation, experimentation, and
mathematics challenged classical views of the cosmos, nature, and the
human body, although existing traditions of knowledge and the universe
continued.
A. New ideas and methods in
astronomy led individuals
such as Copernicus, Galileo,
and Newton to question the
authority of the ancients and
traditional knowledge and to
develop a heliocentric view of
the cosmos.
B. Anatomical and medical
discoveries by physicians,
including William Harvey,
presented the body as
an integrated system,
challenging the traditional
humoral theory of the body
and of disease espoused by
Galen.
Illustrative examples, additional
physicians who challenged Galen:
w
Paracelsus
w
Andreas Vesalius
C. Francis Bacon and René
Descartes dened inductive
and deductive reasoning and
promoted experimentation
and the use of mathematics,
which would ultimately shape
the scientic method.
D. Alchemy and astrology
continued to appeal to
elites and some natural
philosophers, in part because
they shared with the new
science the notion of a
predictable and knowable
universe. At the same time,
many people continued to
believe that the cosmos was
governed by spiritual forces.
Illustrative examples, natural
philosophers who continued to hold
traditional views of alchemy and
astrology:
Paracelsus
w
w
Gerolamo Cardano
w
Johannes Kepler
w
Sir Isaac Newton
Period 1: c. 1450–c. 1648
Key Concept 1.1
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
54
Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
OS-3 Explain how traditional
views of authority and forms of
kno
wledge coexisted with the
scientic method and reason.
OS-4 Evaluate the extent
to which new theories of
government and political
ideologies continued to
incorporate traditional
explanations based on religious
beliefs.
OS-8 Evaluate the extent to
which, over time, religion
shifted from a matter of public
concern to one of private belief.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
Key Concept 1.2 — Religious pluralism challenged the concept of a
unied Europe.
I. The Protestant and Catholic reformations fundamentally changed
theology, religious institutions, culture, and attitudes toward wealth and
prosperity.
A. Christian humanism,
embodied in the writings
of Erasmus, employed
Renaissance learning in the
service of religious reform.
B. Reformers Martin
Luther and John Calvin
criticized Catholic abuses
and established new
interpretations of Christian
doctrine and practice.
Responses to Luther and
Calvin included religious
radicals, such as the
Anabaptists, and other
groups, such as German
peasants.
Illustrative examples, monarchical
control:
w
Sir Thomas More
w
Juan Luis Vives
Illustrative examples, new Protestant
interpretations of Christian doctrine
and practice:
w
Priesthood of all believers
w
Primacy of scripture
w
Predestination
w
Salvation by faith alone
C. Some Protestant groups
sanctioned the notion that
wealth accumulation was
a sign of God’s favor and a
reward for hard work.
Illustrative examples, Protestants
who viewed wealth as signs of God’s
favor:
w
Calvinists
D. The Catholic Reformation,
exemplied by the Jesuit
Order and the Council of
Trent, revived the church but
cemented the division within
Christianity.
Illustrative examples, the Catholic
Reformation:
w
St. Teresa of Avila
w
Ursulines
w
Roman Inquisition
w
Index of Prohibited Books
Period 1: c. 1450–c. 1648
Key Concept 1.2
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
55
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 1.2 — Religious pluralism challenged the concept of a
unied Europe.
SP-1 Describe the political
forms and economic roles of
European governments from
1450 to the present.
SP-2 Explain how and why
the political forms of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-5 Explain how the
relationship between states and
ecclesiastical authority changed
over time.
SP-6 Explain how religious
belief aected politics and
how the principle of religious
toleration emerged and changed
over time.
SP-8 Explain how and why
civic institutions developed
apart from governments and the
impact they had on European
states over time.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
II. Religious reform both increased state control of religious institutions and
provided justications for challenging state authority.
A. Monarchs and princes,
such as the English rulers
Henry VIII and Elizabeth I,
initiated religious reform from
the top down in an eort to
exercise greater control over
religious life and morality.
Illustrative examples, state actions to
control religion and morality:
w
Spanish Inquisition
w
Concordat of Bologna (1516)
w
Book of Common Prayer
w
Peace of Augsburg
B. Some Protestants, including
Calvin and the Anabaptists,
refused to recognize the
subordination of the church to
the secular state.
C. Religious conicts became
a basis for challenging the
monarchs’ control of religious
institutions.
Illustrative examples, religious
conicts caused by groups
challenging the monarch’s control of
religious institutions:
w
Huguenots
w
Puritans
w
Nobles in Poland
Period 1: c. 1450–c. 1648
Key Concept 1.2
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
56
Concept Outline
Illustrative examples, states allowing
religious pluralism:
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 1.2 — Religious pluralism challenged the concept of a
unied Europe.
OS-2 Explain how political
revolution and war altered the
role of the church in political
and intellectual life, as well as
how religious authorities and
intellectuals responded to these
changes.
OS-8 Evaluate the extent to
which, over time, religion
shifted from a matter of public
concern to one of private belief.
SP-1 Describe the political
forms and economic roles of
European governments from
1450 to the present.
SP-2 Explain how and why
the political forms of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-3 Explain how and why the
economic roles of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-5 Explain how the
relationship between states and
ecclesiastical authority changed
over time.
SP-6 Explain how religious
belief aected politics and
how the principle of religious
toleration emerged and changed
over time.
III. Conicts among religious groups overlapped with political and economic
competition within and among states.
A. Issues of religious reform
exacerbated conicts between
the monarchy and the
nobility, as in the French wars
of religion.
Illustrative examples, key factors in
the French wars of religion:
w
Catherine de’ Medici
w
St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre
w
War of the Three Henrys
w
Henry IV
B. Habsburg rulers confronted
an expanded Ottoman
Empire while attempting
unsuccessfully to restore
Catholic unity across Europe.
Illustrative examples, Habsburg
rulers:
w
Charles I
w
Charles V
C. States exploited religious
conicts to promote political
and economic interests.
Illustrative examples, state
exploitation of religious conicts:
Catholic Spain and Protestant
England
w
w
France, Sweden, and Denmark in
the Thirty Years’ War
D. A few states, such as France
with the Edict of Nantes,
allowed religious pluralism
in order to maintain domestic
peace.
w
Poland
w
The Netherlands
Period 1: c. 1450–c. 1648
Key Concept 1.2
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
57
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 1.2 — Religious pluralism challenged the concept of a
unied Europe.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
III. Conicts among religious groups overlapped with political and economic
competition within and among states.
(CONTINUED)
Period 1: c. 1450–c. 1648
Key Concept 1.2
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
58
Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
INT-1 Describe how economic,
religious, cultural, and political
motives inuenced European
exploration and colonization of
overseas territories.
INT-3 Explain how dierent
motives for promoting European
exploration and colonization
of overseas territories changed
from 1450 to the present.
INT-4 Evalua
te why dierent
motives for promoting European
exploration and colonization
of overseas territories changed
from 1450 to the present.
INT-5 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped European culture,
politics, and society.
INT-6 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped non-European
culture, politics, and society.
PP-1 Explain how capitalism
has developed as an economic
system.
SP-1 Describe the political
forms and economic roles of
European governments from
1450 to the present.
SP-2 Explain how and why
the political forms of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-3 Explain how and why the
economic roles of European
governments have changed
over time.
Key Concept 1.3 — Europeans explored and settled overseas
territories, encountering and interacting with indigenous
populations.
I. European nations were driven by commercial and religious motives to
explore overseas territories and establish colonies.
A. European states sought direct
access to gold, spices, and
luxury goods as a means to
enhance personal wealth and
state power.
Illustrative examples, states seeking
access to luxury goods:
w
Spanish in New World
w
Portuguese in Indian Ocean World
w
Dutch in East Indies/Asia
B. The rise of mercantilism
gave the state a new role
in promoting commercial
development and the
acquisition of colonies
overseas.
Illustrative examples, mercantilist
ideas:
w
Jean Baptiste Colbert
C. Christianity was a
stimulus for exploration as
governments and religious
authorities sought to spread
the faith, and for some it
served as a justication for
the subjugation of indigenous
civilizations.
Illustrative examples, religion and
exploration:
w
Jesuit activities
Period 1: c. 1450–c. 1648
Key Concept 1.3
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
59
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 1.3 — Europeans explored and settled overseas
territories, encountering and interacting with indigenous
populations.
SP-9 Explain how and why
changes in warfare aected
diplomacy, the European state
system, and the balance of
power.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
I. European nations were driven by commercial and religious motives to
explore overseas territories and establish colonies.
(CONTINUED)
Period 1: c. 1450–c. 1648
Key Concept 1.3
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
60
Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 1.3 — Europeans explored and settled overseas
territories, encountering and interacting with indigenous
populations.
INT-2 Describe how political,
scientic, and technological
developments facilitated
European contact and
interaction with other parts of
the world.
INT-3 Explain how dierent
motives for promoting European
exploration and colonization
of overseas territories changed
from 1450 to the present.
INT-4 Evaluate why dierent
motives for promoting European
exploration and colonization
of overseas territories changed
from 1450 to the present.
OS-3 Explain how traditional
views of authority and forms of
knowledge coexisted with the
scientic method and reason.
SP-9 Explain how and why
changes in warfare aected
diplomacy, the European state
system, and the balance of
power.
IS-1 Explain the role of
technology in forming and
transforming European society.
II. Advances in navigation, cartography, and military technology enabled
Europeans to establish overseas colonies and empires.
Illustrative examples, navigational
technology:
w
Compass
w
Sternpost rudder
w
Portolani
w
Quadrant and astrolabe
w
Lateen rig
Illustrative examples, military
technology:
w
Horses
w
Guns and gunpowder
Period 1: c. 1450–c. 1648
Key Concept 1.3
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
61
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 1.3 — Europeans explored and settled overseas
territories, encountering and interacting with indigenous
populations.
INT-1 Describe how economic,
religious, cultural, and political
motives inuenced European
exploration and colonization of
overseas territories.
INT-2 Describe how political,
scientic, and technological
developments facilitated
European contact and
interaction with other parts of
the world.
INT-3 Explain how dierent
motives for promoting European
exploration and colonization
of overseas territories changed
from 1450 to the present.
INT-4 Evaluate why dierent
motives for promoting European
exploration and colonization
of overseas territories changed
from 1450 to the present.
INT-5 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped European culture,
politics, and society.
INT-6 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped non-European
culture, politics, and society.
SP-9 Explain how and why
changes in warfare aected
diplomacy, the European state
system, and the balance of
power.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
III. Europeans established overseas empires and trade networks through
coercion and negotiation.
A. The Portuguese established
a commercial network along
the African coast, in South
and East Asia, and in South
America in the late 15th and
throughout the 16th centuries.
B. The Spanish established
colonies across the Americas,
the Caribbean, and the
Pacic, which made Spain a
dominant state in Europe in
the 16th century.
C. The Atlantic nations of
France, England, and the
Netherlands followed by
establishing their own
colonies and trading networks
to compete with Portuguese
and Spanish dominance in
the 17th century.
D. The competition for trade
led to conicts and rivalries
among European powers in
the 17th and 18th centuries.
Illustrative examples, colonial
conicts and rivalries:
w
Asiento
w
War of the Spanish Succession
w
Seven Years’ War
w
Treaty of Tordesillas
Period 1: c. 1450–c. 1648
Key Concept 1.3
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
62
Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 1.3 — Europeans explored and settled overseas
territories, encountering and interacting with indigenous
populations.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
III. Europeans established overseas empires and trade networks through
coercion and negotiation.
(CONTINUED)
Period 1: c. 1450–c. 1648
Key Concept 1.3
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
63
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 1.3 — Europeans explored and settled overseas
territories, encountering and interacting with indigenous
populations.
INT-5 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped European culture,
politics, and society.
INT-6 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped non-European
culture, politics, and society.
PP-1 Explain how capitalism
has developed as an economic
system.
IS-3 Explain how and why
tensions have arisen between
the individual and society over
the course of European history.
IS-5 Explain how identities
such as ethnicity, race, gender,
religious aliation, and class
have aected the individual’s
relationship to society from
1450 to the present.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
IV. Europe’s colonial expansion led to a global exchange of goods, ora,
fauna, cultural practices, and diseases, resulting in the destruction of
some indigenous civilizations, a shift toward European dominance, and
the expansion of the slave trade.
A. The exchange of goods
shifted the center of economic
power in Europe from the
Mediterranean to the Atlantic
states and brought the latter
into an expanding world
economy.
Illustrative examples, important
Atlantic port cities:
w
London
w
Bristol
w
Amsterdam
w
Antwerp
B. The exchange of new
plants, animals, and
diseases—the Columbian
Exchange—created economic
opportunities for Europeans
and in some cases facilitated
European subjugation and
destruction of indigenous
peoples, particularly in the
Americas.
Illustrative examples, new plants,
animals, and diseases:
From Europe to the Americas:
w
Wheat
w
Cattle
w
Horses
w
Pigs
w
Sheep
w
Smallpox
w
Measles
From the Americas to Europe:
w
Tomatoes
w
Potatoes
w
Squash
w
Corn
w
Tobacco
w
Turkeys
C. Europeans expanded the
African slave trade in
response to the establishment
of a plantation economy in the
Americas and demographic
catastrophes among
indigenous peoples.
Illustrative examples, slave trade
developments:
w
Middle Passage
w
Planter society
Period 1: c. 1450–c. 1648
Key Concept 1.3
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
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Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a result of
t
he development of capitalism.
IS-1 Explain the role of
technology in forming and
transforming European society.
IS-2 Explain how family
life, relations between social
groups, and ideas about gender
have changed over time.
IS-3 Explain how and why
tensions have arisen between
the individual and society over
the course of European history.
IS-5 Explain how identities
such as ethnicity, race, gender,
religious aliation, and class
have aected the individual’s
relationship to society from
1450 to the present.
Key Concept 1.4 — European society and the experiences of
everyday life were increasingly shaped by commercial and
agricultural capitalism, notwithstanding the continued existence of
medieval social and economic structures.
I. Economic change produced new social patterns, while traditions of
hierarchy and status continued.
A. Innovations in banking and
nance promoted the growth
of urban nancial centers and
a money economy.
Illustrative examples, innovations in
banking and nance:
w
Double-entry bookkeeping
w
Bank of Amsterdam
w
The Dutch East India Company
w
The British East India Company
B. The growth of commerce
produced a new economic
elite, which related to
traditional land-holding elites
in dierent ways in Europe’s
various geographic regions.
Illustrative examples, the new
economic elites:
w
Gentry in England
w
Nobles of the robe in France
w
Town elites (bankers and
merchants)
C. Established hierarchies of
class, religion, and gender
continued to dene social
status and perceptions in
both rural and urban settings.
Illustrative examples, continued
social hierarchies:
w
w
Continued prestige of land
ownership
Aristocratic privileges regarding
taxes, fees for services, and legal
protections
w
Continued political exclusion of
women
Period 1: c. 1450–c. 1648
Key Concept 1.4
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
65
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 1.4 — European society and the experiences of
everyday life were increasingly shaped by commercial and
agricultural capitalism, notwithstanding the continued existence of
medieval social and economic structures.
PP-2 Explain the impact
of the development of new
technologies and industries
on economic growth and the
standard of living in dierent
geographic regions.
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a result of
the development of capitalism.
PP-4 Explain the causes and
consequences of economic
inequality.
PP-5 Explain how individuals,
groups, and the state responded
to economic developments over
time.
IS-1 Explain the role of
technology in forming and
transforming European society.
IS-2 Explain how family
life, relations between social
groups, and ideas about gender
have changed over time.
II. Most Europeans derived their livelihood from agriculture and oriented
their lives around the seasons, the village, or the manor, although
economic changes began to alter rural production and power.
A. Subsistence agriculture was
the rule in most areas, with
three-crop eld rotation in the
north and two-crop rotation in
the Mediterranean; in many
cases, farmers paid rent and
labor services for their lands.
B. The price revolution
contributed to the
accumulation of capital
and the expansion of the
market economy through
the commercialization of
agriculture, which beneted
large landowners in western
Europe.
Illustrative examples, the
commercialization of agriculture:
w
Enclosure movement
w
Restricted use of the village
common
w
Freehold tenure
C. As western Europe moved
toward a free peasantry and
commercial agriculture,
serfdom was codied in the
east, where nobles continued
to dominate economic life on
large estates.
D. The attempts of landlords to
increase their revenues by
restricting or abolishing the
traditional rights of peasants
led to revolt.
Period 1: c. 1450–c. 1648
Key Concept 1.4
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
66
Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 1.4 — European society and the experiences of
everyday life were increasingly shaped by commercial and
agricultural capitalism, notwithstanding the continued existence of
medieval social and economic structures.
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a result of
the development of capitalism.
PP-5 Explain how individuals,
groups, and the state responded
to economic developments over
time.
IS-1 Explain the role of
technology in forming and
transforming European society.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
III. Population shifts and growing commerce caused the expansion of
cities, which often placed stress on their traditional political and social
structures.
A. Population recovered to its
pre–Great Plague level in the
16th century, and continuing
population pressures
contributed to uneven price
increases; agricultural
commodities increased more
sharply than wages, reducing
living standards for some.
B. Migrants to the cities
challenged the ability of
merchant elites and craft
guilds to govern, and strained
resources.
Illustrative examples, the way new
migrants challenged urban elites:
w
Sanitation problems caused by
overpopulation
w
Employment
w
Poverty
w
Crime
C. Social dislocation, coupled
with the shifting authority of
religious institutions during
the Reformation, left city
governments with the task of
regulating public morals.
Illustrative examples, regulating
public morals:
w
New secular laws regulating private
life
w
Stricter codes on prostitution and
begging
w
Abolishing or restricting Carnival
w
Calvin’s Geneva
Period 1: c. 1450–c. 1648
Key Concept 1.4
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
67
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 1.4 — European society and the experiences of
everyday life were increasingly shaped by commercial and
agricultural capitalism, notwithstanding the continued existence of
medieval social and economic structures.
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a result of
the development of capitalism.
OS-3 Explain how traditional
views of authority and forms of
knowledge coexisted with the
scientic method and reason.
IS-2 Explain how family
life, relations between social
groups, and ideas about gender
have changed over time.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
IS-5 Explain how identities
such as ethnicity, race, gender,
religious aliation, and class
have aected the individual’s
relationship to society from
1450 to the present.
IV. The family remained the primary social and economic institution of early
modern Europe and took several forms, including the nuclear family.
A. Rural and urban households
worked as units, with men
and women engaged in
separate but complementary
tasks.
B. The Renaissance and
Reformation raised debates
about female education and
women’s roles in the family,
church, and society.
Illustrative examples, debates about
female roles:
w
Women’s intellect and education
Women as preachers
w
w
La Querelle des Femmes
C. From the late 16th century
forward, Europeans
responded to economic and
environmental challenges,
such as the Little Ice Age,
by delaying marriage and
childbearing. This European
marriage pattern restrained
population growth and
ultimately improved the
economic condition of
families.
Period 1: c. 1450–c. 1648
Key Concept 1.4
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Concept Outline
▲
Period 1: c. 1450–c. 1648
Key Concept 1.4
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 1.4 — European society and the experiences of
everyday life were increasingly shaped by commercial and
agricultural capitalism, notwithstanding the continued existence of
medieval social and economic structures.
OS-1 Explain the roles
traditional sources of
authority—church and classical
antiquity—have played in the
creation and transmission of
knowledge at dierent points in
Europe’s history from 1450 to
the present.
IS-2 Explain how family
life, relations between social
groups, and ideas about gender
have changed over time.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
IS-5 Explain how identities
such as ethnicity, race, gender,
religious aliation, and class
have aected the individual’s
relationship to society from
1450 to the present.
V. Popular culture, leisure activities, and rituals reecting the continued
popularity of folk ideas reinforced and sometimes challenged communal
ties and norms.
A. Leisure activities continued
to be organized according
to the religious calendar
and the agricultural cycle
and remained communal in
nature.
Illustrative examples, communal
leisure activities:
w
Saint’s day festivities
w
Carnival
w
Blood sports
B. Local and church authorities
continued to enforce
communal norms through
rituals of public humiliation.
Illustrative examples, rituals of public
humiliation:
w
Charivari
Stocks
w
Public whipping and branding
w
C. Reecting folk ideas and
social and economic
upheaval, accusations of
witchcraft peaked between
1580 and 1650.
Illustrative examples, accusations of
witchcraft:
w
Prominence of women
w
Regional variation
Social upheaval
w
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© 2017 The College Board
AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
69
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a result of
the development of capitalism.
OS-2 Explain how political
revolution and war altered the
role of the church in political
and intellectual life, as well as
how religious authorities and
intellectuals responded to these
changes.
OS-4 Evaluate the extent
to which new theories of
government and political
ideologies continued to
incorporate traditional
explanations based on religious
beliefs.
SP-1 Describe the political
forms and economic roles of
European governments from
1450 to the present.
SP-2 Explain how and why
the political forms of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-3 Explain how and why the
economic roles of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-5 Explain how the
relationship between states and
ecclesiastical authority changed
over time.
SP-6 Explain how religious
belief aected politics and
how the principle of religious
toleration emerged and changed
over time.
Key Concept 1.5 — The struggle for sovereignty within and among
states resulted in varying degrees of political centralization.
I. The new concept of the sovereign state and secular systems of law played
a central role in the creation of new political institutions.
A. New monarchies laid the
foundation for the centralized
modern state by establishing
monopolies on tax collection,
military force, and the
dispensing of justice and
gaining the right to determine
the religion of their subjects.
Illustrative examples, monarchical
control:
w
Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain
consolidating control of the military
Star Chamber
w
w
Concordat of Bologna (1516)
Peace of Augsburg (1555)
w
w
Edict of Nantes (1598)
B. The Peace of Westphalia
(1648), which marked
the eective end of the
medieval ideal of universal
Christendom, accelerated the
decline of the Holy Roman
Empire by granting princes,
bishops, and other local
leaders control over religion.
Illustrative examples, commercial
and professional groups that gained
in power:
C. Across Europe, commercial
and professional groups
gained in power and played a
greater role in political aairs.
w
Merchants and nanciers in
Renaissance Italy and northern
Europe
w
Nobles of the robe in France
w
Gentry in England
D. Continued political
fragmentation in Renaissance
Italy provided a background
for the development of new
concepts of the secular state.
Illustrative examples, secular political
theorists:
w
Jean Bodin
w
Hugo Grotius
w
Machiavelli
Period 1: c. 1450–c. 1648
Key Concept 1.5
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
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Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 1.5 — The struggle for sovereignty within and among
states resulted in varying degrees of political centralization.
SP-10 Explain how the concept
of a balance of power emerged,
developed, and eventually
became institutionalized over
time.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
I. The new concept of the sovereign state and secular systems of law played
a central role in the creation of new political institutions.
(CONTINUED)
Period 1: c. 1450–c. 1648
Key Concept 1.5
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
71
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 1.5 — The struggle for sovereignty within and among
states resulted in varying degrees of political centralization.
OS-4 Evaluate the extent
to which new theories of
government and political
ideologies continued to
incorporate traditional
explanations based on religious
beliefs.
SP-9 Explain how and why
changes in warfare aected
diplomacy, the European state
system, and the balance of
power.
SP-10 Explain how the concept
of a balance of power emerged,
developed, and eventually
became institutionalized over
time.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
II. The competitive state system led to new patterns of diplomacy and new
forms of warfare.
A. Following the Peace of
Westphalia, religion declined
in importance as a cause for
warfare among European
states; the concept of the
balance of power played an
important role in structuring
diplomatic and military
objectives.
B. Advances in military
technology led to new forms
of warfare, including greater
reliance on infantry, rearms,
mobile cannon, and more
elaborate fortications, all
nanced by heavier taxation
and requiring a larger
bureaucracy. New military
techniques and institutions
(i.e., the military revolution)
tipped the balance of power
toward states able to marshal
sucient resources for the
new military environment.
Illustrative examples, states
that beneted from the military
revolution:
Spain under the Habsburgs
w
Sweden under Gustavus Adolphus
w
w
France
Period 1: c. 1450–c. 1648
Key Concept 1.5
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
72
Concept Outline
Period 1: c. 1450–c. 1648
Key Concept 1.5
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 1.5 — The struggle for sovereignty within and among
states resulted in varying degrees of political centralization.
SP-1 Describe the political
forms and economic roles of
European governments from
1450 to the present.
SP-2 Explain how and why
the political forms of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-4 Describe the emergence
and development of political
theories and practices
that stressed the political
importance and rights of the
individual.
SP-8 Explain how and why
civic institutions developed
apart from governments and the
impact they had on European
states over time.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
III. The competition for power between monarchs and corporate and minority
language groups produced dierent distributions of governmental
authority in European states.
A. The English Civil War—a
conict among the monarchy,
Parliament, and other elites
over their respective roles
in the political structure—
exemplied this competition.
Illustrative examples, competitors for
power in the English Civil War:
w
James I
w
Charles I
w
Oliver Cromwell
B. Monarchies seeking
enhanced power faced
challenges from nobles who
wished to retain traditional
forms of shared governance
and regional autonomy.
Illustrative examples, the competition
between monarchs and nobles:
w
Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu
w
The Fronde in France
w
The Catalan Revolts in Spain
C. Within states, minority local
and regional identities based
on language and culture led
to resistance against the
dominant national group.
Illustrative examples, the competition
between minority and dominant
national groups:
w
Celtic regions of Scotland, Ireland,
and France
w
Dutch resistance in the Spanish
Netherlands
w
Czech identity in the Holy Roman
Empire/Jan Hus/Defenestration of
Prague
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
73
c. 1450 – c. 1648
c. 1648–c. 1815
c. 1815–c. 1914 c. 1914–PRESENT
PERIOD 2:
c. 1648 – c. 1815
Key Concept 2.1
Between 1648 and 1815, the sovereign state was consolidated as the principal form of political
organization across Europe. Justied and rationalized by theories of political sovereignty,
states adopted a variety of methods to acquire the human, scal, and material resources
essential for the promotion of their interests. Although challenged and sometimes eectively
resisted by various social groups and institutions, the typical state of the period, best
exemplied by the rule of Louis XIV in France, asserted claims to absolute authority within
its borders. A few states, most notably England and the Dutch Republic, gradually developed
governments in which the authority of the executive was restricted by legislative bodies
protecting the interests of the landowning and commercial classes.
Between the Peace of Westphalia (1648) and the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815), European
states managed their external aairs within a balance of power system. In this system,
diplomacy became a major component of the relations among states. Most of the wars of the
period, including conicts fought outside of Europe, stemmed from attempts either to preserve
or disturb the balance of power among European states. While European monarchs continued
to view their aairs in dynastic terms, increasingly, reasons of state inuenced policy.
The French Revolution was the most formidable challenge to traditional politics and
diplomacy during this period. Inspired in part by Enlightenment ideas, the revolution
introduced mass politics, led to the creation of numerous political and social ideologies,
and remained the touchstone for those advocating radical reform in subsequent decades.
The French Revolution was part of a larger revolutionary impulse that, as a transatlantic
movement, inuenced revolutions in Spanish America and the Haitian slave revolt. Napoleon
Bonaparte built upon the gains of the revolution and attempted to exploit the resources of
the continent in the interests of France and his own dynasty. Napoleon’s revolutionary state
imposed French hegemony throughout Europe, but eventually a coalition of European powers
overthrew French domination and restored, as much as possible, a balance of power within
the European state system. Conservative leaders also attempted to contain the danger of
revolutionary or nationalistic upheavals inspired by the French Revolution.
Key Concept 2.2
The economic watershed of the 17th and 18th centuries was a historically unique passage
from limited resources that made material want inescapable to self-generating economic
growth that dramatically raised levels of physical and material well-being. European
societies—rst those with access to the Atlantic and gradually those to the east and on the
Mediterranean—provided increasing percentages of their populations with a higher standard
of living.
The gradual emergence of new economic structures that made European global inuence
possible both presupposed and promoted far-reaching changes in human capital, property
rights, nancial instruments, technologies, and labor systems. These changes included:
n
Availability of labor power, both in terms of numbers and in terms of persons with the skills
(literacy, ability to understand and manipulate the natural world, physical health sucient
for work) required for ecient production
n
Institutions and practices that supported economic activity and provided incentives for it
(new denitions of property rights and protections for them against theft or conscation
and against state taxation)
c. 1450 – c. 1648
c. 1648–c. 1815
c. 1815–c. 1914 c. 1914–PRESENT
c. 1450 – c. 1648
c. 1648–c. 1815
c. 1815–c. 1914 c. 1914–PRESENT
n
Accumulations of capital for nancing enterprises and innovations, as well as for raising
the standard of living and the means for turning private savings into investable or “venture”
capital
n
Technological innovations in food production, transportation, communication, and
manufacturing
A major result of these changes was the development of a growing consumer society that
beneted from and contributed to the increase in material resources. At the same time, other
eects of the economic revolution—including increased geographic mobility, transformed
employer–worker relations, the decline of domestic manufacturing—eroded traditional
community and family solidarities and protections.
European economic strength derived in part from the ability to control and exploit resources
(human and material) around the globe. Mercantilism supported the development of European
trade and inuence around the world, which, in turn, encouraged overseas exploration,
expansion, and conicts. Internally, Europe divided more and more sharply between the
societies engaging in overseas trade and undergoing the economic transformations sketched
above (primarily countries on the Atlantic) and those (primarily in central and eastern Europe)
with little such involvement. The eastern European countries remained in a traditional,
principally agrarian, economy and maintained the traditional order of society and the state
that rested on it.
Key Concept 2.3
During the 17th and 18th centuries, Europeans applied the methods of the new science—such
as empiricism, mathematics, and skepticism—to human aairs. During the Enlightenment,
intellectuals such as Rousseau, Voltaire, and Diderot aimed to replace faith in divine revelation
with faith in human reason and classical values. In economics and politics, liberal theorists
such as John Locke and Adam Smith questioned absolutism and mercantilism by arguing for
the authority of natural law and the market. Belief in progress, along with improved social
and economic conditions, spurred signicant gains in literacy and education as well as the
creation of a new culture of the printed word—including novels, newspapers, periodicals, and
such reference works as Diderot’s Encyclopédie—for a growing educated audience.
Alongside several movements of religious revival that occurred during the 18th century,
European elite culture embraced skepticism, secularism, and atheism for the rst time in
European history. From the beginning of this period, Protestants and Catholics grudgingly
tolerated each other following the religious warfare of the previous two centuries. By 1800,
most governments had extended toleration to Christian minorities and in some states even to
Jews. Religion was viewed increasingly as a matter of private rather than public concern.
The new rationalism did not sweep all before it; in fact, it coexisted with a revival of
sentimentalism and emotionalism. Until about 1750, Baroque art and music gloried religious
feeling and drama as well as the grandiose pretensions of absolute monarchs. During the
French Revolution, romanticism and nationalism implicitly challenged what some saw as
the Enlightenment’s overemphasis on reason. These Counter-Enlightenment views laid the
foundations for new cultural and political values in the 19th century. Overall, intellectual
and cultural developments reected a new worldview in which rationalism, skepticism,
scientic investigation, and a belief in progress generally dominated. At the same time, other
worldviews stemming from religion, nationalism, and romanticism remained inuential.
Key Concept 2.4
The legacies of the 16th-century population explosion, which roughly doubled the European
population, were social disruptions and demographic disasters that persisted into the
18th century. Volatile weather in the 17th century harmed agricultural production. In some
localities, recurring food shortages caused undernourishment that combined with disease
to produce periodic spikes in mortality. By the 17th century, the European marriage pattern,
which limited family size, became the most important check on population levels, although
some couples also adopted birth control practices to limit family size. By the middle of the
18th century, better weather, improvements in transportation, new crops and agricultural
practices, less epidemic disease, and advances in medicine and hygiene allowed much of
Europe to escape from the cycle of famines that had caused repeated demographic disaster.
By the end of the 18th century, reductions in child mortality and increases in life expectancy
constituted the demographic underpinnings of new attitudes toward children and families.
Particularly in western Europe, the demographic revolution, along with the rise in prosperity,
produced advances in material well-being that did not stop with the economic: greater
prosperity was associated with increasing literacy, education, and rich cultural lives (the
growth of publishing and libraries, the founding of schools, and the establishment of
orchestras, theaters, and museums). By the end of the 18th century, it was evident that a
high proportion of Europeans were better fed, healthier, longer lived, and more secure and
comfortable in their material well-being than at any previous time in human history. This
relative prosperity was balanced by increasing numbers of the poor throughout Europe, who
strained charitable resources and alarmed government ocials and local communities.
c. 1450 – c. 1648
c. 1648–c. 1815
c. 1815–c. 1914 c. 1914–PRESENT
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.1
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
OS-2 Explain how political
revolution and war altered t
he
role of the church in political
and intellectual life, as well as
how religious authorities and
intellectuals responded to these
changes.
OS-4 Evaluate the extent
to which new theories of
government and political
ideologies continued to
incorporate traditional
explanations based on religious
beliefs.
SP-1 Describe the political
forms and economic roles of
European governments from
1450 to the present.
SP-2 Explain how and why
the political forms of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-3 Explain how and why the
economic roles of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-5 Explain how the
relationship between states and
ecclesiastical authority changed
over time.
SP-6 Explain how religious
belief aected politics and
how the principle of religious
toleration emerged and changed
over time.
SP-7 Explain how and why
European governments have
moved toward or reacted against
representative and democratic
principles and practices.
Key Concept 2.1 — Dierent models of political sovereignty aected
the relationship among states and between states and individuals.
I. In much of Europe, absolute monarchy was established over the course of
the 17th and 18th centuries.
A. Absolute monarchies limited
the nobility’s participation in
governance but preserved the
aristocracy’s social position
and legal privileges.
Illustrative examples, absolute
monarchs:
w
James I of England
w
Peter the Great of Russia
w
Philip II, III, and IV of Spain
B. Louis XIV and his nance
minister, Jean-Baptiste
Colbert, extended the
administrative, nancial,
military, and religious control
of the central state over the
French population.
Illustrative examples, extended power
of the state:
w
Intendants
w
Modernized, state-controlled
military
C. In the 18th century, a number
of states in eastern and
central Europe experimented
with enlightened absolutism.
Illustrative examples, enlightened
monarchs:
w
Frederick II of Prussia
w
Joseph II of Austria
D. The inability of the Polish
monarchy to consolidate its
authority over the nobility
led to Poland’s partition by
Prussia, Russia, and Austria,
and its disappearance from
the map of Europe.
E. Peter the Great “westernized”
the Russian state and society,
transforming political,
religious, and cultural
institutions; Catherine the
Great continued this process.
Illustrative examples, Russian
westernization:
w
Russian Academy of Sciences
w
Education
w
Western fashion
w
Expanded military
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
79
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 2.1 — Dierent models of political sovereignty aected
the relationship among states and between states and individuals.
IS-3 Explain how and why
tensions have arisen between
the individual and society over
the course of European history.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
I. In much of Europe, absolute monarchy was established over the course of
the 17th and 18th centuries.
(CONTINUED)
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.1
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
80
Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 2.1 — Dierent models of political sovereignty aected
the relationship among states and between states and individuals.
OS-2 Explain how political
revolution and war altered the
role of the church in political
and intellectual life, as well as
how religious authorities and
intellectuals responded to these
changes.
OS-4 Evaluate the extent
to which new theories of
government and political
ideologies continued to
incorporate traditional
explanations based on religious
beliefs.
SP-1 Describe the political
forms and economic roles of
European governments from
1450 to the present.
SP-2 Explain how and why
the political forms of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-3 Explain how and why the
economic roles of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-4 Describe the emergence
and development of political
theories and practices
that stressed the political
importance and rights of the
individual.
SP-8 Explain how and why
civic institutions developed
apart from governments and the
impact they had on European
states over time.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
II. Challenges to absolutism resulted in alternative political systems.
A. The outcome of the English
Civil War and the Glorious
Revolution protected
the rights of gentry and
aristocracy from absolutism
through assertions of the
rights of Parliament.
Illustrative examples, outcomes
of the English Civil War and the
Glorious Revolution:
w
English Bill of Rights
w
Parliamentary sovereignty
B. The Dutch Republic,
established by a Protestant
revolt against the Habsburg
monarchy, developed an
oligarchy of urban gentry and
rural landholders to promote
trade and protect traditional
rights.
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.1
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
81
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 2.1 — Dierent models of political sovereignty aected
the relationship among states and between states and individuals.
INT-1 Describe how economic,
religious, cultural, and political
motives inuenced European
exploration and colonization of
overseas territories.
INT-3 Explain how dierent
motives for promoting European
exploration and colonization
of overseas territories changed
from 1450 to the present.
INT-4 Evaluate why dierent
motives for promoting European
exploration and colonization
of overseas territories changed
from 1450 to the present.
INT-6 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped non-European
culture, politics, and society.
SP-9 Explain how and why
changes in warfare aected
diplomacy, the European state
system, and the balance of power.
SP-10 Explain how the concept
of a balance of power emerged,
developed, and eventually
became institutionalized over
time.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
III. After 1648, dynastic and state interests, along with Europe’s expanding
colonial empires, inuenced the diplomacy of European states and
frequently led to war.
A. As a result of the Holy
Roman Empire’s limitation of
sovereignty in the Peace of
Westphalia, Prussia rose to
power and the Habsburgs,
centered in Austria, shifted
their empire eastward.
Illustrative examples, Prussian and
Habsburg rulers:
w
Maria Theresa of Austria
w
Frederick William I of Prussia
w
Frederick II of Prussia
B. After the Austrian defeat of
the Turks in 1683 at the Battle
of Vienna, the Ottomans
ceased their westward
expansion.
C. Louis XIV’s nearly continuous
wars, pursuing both dynastic
and state interests, provoked
a coalition of European
powers opposing him.
Illustrative examples, Louis XIV’s
nearly continuous wars:
Dutch War
w
w
Nine Years’ War
w
War of the Spanish Succession
D. Rivalry between Britain and
France resulted in world wars
fought both in Europe and
in the colonies, with Britain
supplanting France as the
greatest European power.
Illustrative examples, conict
between the French and the British:
w
Seven Years’ War
w
American Revolution
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.1
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
82
Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 2.1 — Dierent models of political sovereignty aected
the relationship among states and between states and individuals.
INT-5 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped European culture,
politics, and society.
INT-6 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped non-European
culture, politics, and society.
PP-4 Explain the causes and
consequences of economic
inequality.
PP-5 Explain how individuals,
groups, and the state responded
to economic developments over
time.
OS-2 Explain how political
revolution and war altered the
role of the church in political
and intellectual life, as well as
how religious authorities and
intellectuals responded to these
changes.
OS-4 Evaluate the extent to which
new theories of government and
political ideologies continued
to incorporate traditional
explanations based on religious
beliefs.
SP-1 Describe the political
forms and economic roles of
European governments from
1450 to the present.
SP-2 Explain how and why
the political forms of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-3 Explain how and why the
economic roles of European
governments have changed
over time.
IV. The French Revolution posed a fundamental challenge to Europe’s
existing political and social order.
A. The French Revolution
resulted from a combination
of long-term social and
political causes, as well
as Enlightenment ideas,
exacerbated by short-term
scal and economic crises.
Illustrative examples, causes of the
French Revolution:
w
Peasant and bourgeois grievances
w
Bread shortages
w
French involvement in American
Revolution
B. The rst, or liberal, phase
of the French Revolution
established a constitutional
monarchy, increased popular
participation, nationalized
the Catholic Church,
and abolished hereditary
privileges.
Illustrative examples, actions taken
during the moderate phase of the
French Revolution:
w
Declaration of the Rights of Man
and Citizen
w
Civil Constitution of the Clergy
w
Constitution of 1791
w
Abolition of provinces and division
of France into departments
C. After the execution of
Louis XVI, the radical Jacobin
republic led by Robespierre
responded to opposition
at home and war abroad
by instituting the Reign of
Terror, xing prices and
wages, and pursuing a policy
of de-Christianization.
Illustrative examples, radical Jacobin
leaders and institutions:
w
Georges Danton
w
Jean-Paul Marat
w
Committee of Public Safety
D. Revolutionary armies, raised
by mass conscription, sought
to bring the changes initiated
in France to the rest of
Europe.
Illustrative examples, mass
conscription:
w
Levee en masse
E. Women enthusiastically
participated in the early
phases of the revolution;
however, while there were
brief improvements in the
legal status of women,
citizenship in the republic
was soon restricted to men.
Illustrative examples, female
involvement in the revolution:
w
October March on Versailles
w
Olympe de Gouges
w
Society of Republican Revolutionary
Women
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.1
▲
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© 2017 The College Board
AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
83
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 2.1 — Dierent models of political sovereignty aected
the relationship among states and between states and individuals.
SP-4 Describe the emergence
and development of political
theories and practices
that stressed the political
importance and rights of the
individual.
SP-5 Explain how the
relationship between states and
ecclesiastical authority changed
over time.
SP-6 Explain how religious
belief aected politics and
how the principle of religious
toleration emerged and changed
over time.
SP-7 Explain how and why
European governments have
moved toward or reacted
against representative and
democratic principles and
practices.
SP-8 Explain how and why
civic institutions developed
apart from governments and the
impact they had on European
states over time.
SP-9 Explain how and why
changes in warfare aected
diplomacy, the European state
system, and the balance of
power.
SP-10 Explain how the concept
of a balance of power emerged,
developed, and eventually
became institutionalized over
time.
IS-3 Explain how and why
tensions have arisen between
the individual and society over
the course of European history.
IV. The French Revolution posed a fundamental challenge to Europe’s
existing political and social order.
(CONTINUED)
F. Revolutionary ideals
inspired a slave revolt led
by Toussaint L’Ouverture in
the French colony of Saint
Domingue, which became
the independent nation of
Haiti in 1804.
G. While many were inspired
by the revolution’s emphasis
on equality and human
rights, others condemned its
violence and disregard for
traditional authority.
Illustrative examples, opponents of
the revolution:
Edmund Burke
w
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.1
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
84
Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 2.1 — Dierent models of political sovereignty aected
the relationship among states and between states and individuals.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
IS-5 Explain how identities
such as ethnicity, race, gender,
religious aliation, and class
have aected the individual’s
relationship to society from
1450 to the present.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
IV. The French Revolution posed a fundamental challenge to Europe’s
existing political and social order.
(CONTINUED)
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.1
▲
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© 2017 The College Board
AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
85
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 2.1 — Dierent models of political sovereignty aected
the relationship among states and between states and individuals.
PP-4 Explain the causes and
consequences of economic
inequality.
PP-5 Explain how individuals,
groups, and the state responded
to economic developments over
time.
SP-5 Explain how the
relationship between states and
ecclesiastical authority changed
over time.
SP-6 Explain how religious belief
aected politics and how the
principle of religious toleration
emerged and changed over time.
SP-9 Explain how and why
changes in warfare aected
diplomacy, the European state
system, and the balance of
power.
SP-10 Explain how the concept
of a balance of power emerged,
developed, and eventually
became institutionalized over
time.
IS-3 Explain how and why
tensions have arisen between
the individual and society over
the course of European history.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
IS-5 Explain how identities
such as ethnicity, race, gender,
religious aliation, and class
have aected the individual’s
relationship to society from
1450 to the present.
V. Claiming to defend the ideals of the French Revolution, Napoleon
Bonaparte imposed French control over much of the European continent,
which eventually provoked a nationalistic reaction.
A. As rst consul and emperor,
Napoleon undertook a
number of enduring domestic
reforms while often curtailing
some rights and manipulating
popular impulses behind
a façade of representative
institutions.
Illustrative examples, domestic
reforms under Napoleon:
w
Careers open to talent
w
Educational system
w
Centralized bureaucracy
w
Civil Code
w
Concordat of 1801
Illustrative examples, curtailment of
rights under Napoleon:
w
Secret police
w
Censorship
w
Limitation of women’s rights
B. Napoleon’s new military
tactics allowed him to exert
direct or indirect control
over much of the European
continent, spreading
the ideals of the French
Revolution across Europe.
C. Napoleon’s expanding empire
created nationalist responses
throughout Europe.
Illustrative examples, nationalist
responses to Napoleon:
w
Student protest in German states
w
Guerilla war in Spain
w
Russian scorched earth policy
D. After the defeat of Napoleon
by a coalition of European
powers, the Congress of
Vienna (1814–1815) attempted
to restore the balance of
power in Europe and contain
the danger of revolutionary or
nationalistic upheavals in the
future.
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.1
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Concept Outline
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.1
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 2.1 — Dierent models of political sovereignty aected
the relationship among states and between states and individuals.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
V. Claiming to defend the ideals of the French Revolution, Napoleon
Bonaparte imposed French control over much of the European continent,
which eventually provoked a nationalistic reaction.
(CONTINUED)
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Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
PP-1 Explain how capitalism
has developed as an economic
system.
PP-2 Explain the impact
of the development of new
technologies and industries
on economic growth and the
standard of living in dierent
geographic regions.
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a result of
the development of capitalism.
IS-1 Explain the role of
technology in forming and
transforming European society.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
Key Concept 2.2 — The expansion of European commerce
accelerated the growth of a worldwide economic network.
I. Early modern Europe developed a market economy that provided the
foundation for its global role.
A. Labor and trade in
commodities were
increasingly freed from
traditional restrictions
imposed by governments and
corporate entities.
Illustrative examples, trade freed from
traditional restrictions:
w
Market-driven wages and prices
w
Le Chapelier laws
B. The Agricultural Revolution
raised productivity and
increased the supply of
food and other agricultural
products.
C. The putting-out system, or
cottage industry, expanded
as increasing numbers
of laborers in homes or
workshops produced for
markets through merchant
intermediaries or workshop
owners.
D. The development of the
market economy led to new
nancial practices and
institutions.
Illustrative examples, new nancial
practices and institutions:
w
Insurance
w
Banking institutions for turning
private savings into venture capital
w
New denitions of property rights
and protections against conscation
Bank of England
w
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.2
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Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 2.2 — The expansion of European commerce
accelerated the growth of a worldwide economic network.
INT-1 Describe how economic,
religious, cultural, and political
motives inuenced European
exploration and colonization of
overseas territories.
INT-2 Describe how political,
scientic, and technological
developments facilitated
European contact and
interaction with other parts of
the world.
INT-3 Explain how dierent
motives for promoting European
exploration and colonization
of overseas territories changed
from 1450 to the present.
INT-4 Evaluate why dierent
motives for promoting European
exploration and colonization
of overseas territories changed
from 1450 to the present.
INT-5 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped European culture,
politics, and society.
INT-6 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped non-European
culture, politics, and society.
PP-1 Explain how capitalism
has developed as an economic
system.
PP-2 Explain the impact
of the development of new
technologies and industries
on economic growth and the
standard of living in dierent
geographic regions.
II. The European-dominated worldwide economic network contributed to the
agricultural, industrial, and consumer revolutions in Europe.
A. European states followed
mercantilist policies by
drawing resources from
colonies in the New World
and elsewhere.
B. The transatlantic slave-labor
system expanded in the 17th
and 18th centuries as demand
for New World products
increased.
Illustrative examples, transatlantic
slave-labor systems:
w
Middle Passage
w
Triangle trade
Plantation economies in the
Americas
w
C. Overseas products and
inuences contributed to the
development of a consumer
culture in Europe.
Illustrative examples, overseas
products:
w
Sugar
w
Tea
w
Silks and other fabrics
w
Tobacco
w
Rum
w
Coee
D. The importation and
transplantation of agricultural
products from the Americas
contributed to an increase in
the food supply in Europe.
E. Foreign lands provided raw
materials, nished goods,
laborers, and markets for the
commercial and industrial
enterprises in Europe.
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.2
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Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 2.2 — The expansion of European commerce
accelerated the growth of a worldwide economic network.
SP-1 Describe the political
forms and economic roles of
European governments from
1450 to the present.
SP-2 Explain how and why
the political forms of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-3 Explain how and why the
economic roles of European
governments have changed
over time.
IS-3 Explain how and why
tensions have arisen between
the individual and society over
the course of European history.
IS-5 Explain how identities
such as ethnicity, race, gender,
religious aliation, and class
have aected the individual’s
relationship to society from
1450 to the present.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
II. The European-dominated worldwide economic network contributed to the
agricultural, industrial, and consumer revolutions in Europe.
(CONTINUED)
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.2
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Concept Outline
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.2
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 2.2 — The expansion of European commerce
accelerated the growth of a worldwide economic network.
INT-1 Describe how economic,
religious, cultural, and political
motives inuenced European
exploration and colonization of
overseas territories.
INT-2 Describe how political,
scientic, and technological
developments facilitated
European contact and
interaction with other parts of
the world.
INT-3 Explain how dierent
motives for promoting European
exploration and colonization
of overseas territories changed
from 1450 to the present.
INT-6 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped non-European
culture, politics, and society.
SP-9 Explain how and why
changes in warfare aected
diplomacy, the European state
system, and the balance of
power.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
III. Commercial rivalries inuenced diplomacy and warfare among European
states in the early modern era.
A. European sea powers vied for
Atlantic inuence throughout
the 18th century.
B. Portuguese, Dutch, French,
and British rivalries in
Asia culminated in British
domination in India and
Dutch control of the East
Indies.
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Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 2.3 — The spread of Scientic Revolution concepts and
practices and the Enlightenment’s application of these concepts and
practices to political, social, and ethical issues led to an increased
but not unchallenged emphasis on reason in European culture.
PP-4 Explain the causes and
consequences of economic
inequality.
PP-5 Explain how individuals,
groups, and the state responded
to economic developments over
time.
OS-1 Explain the roles
traditional sources of
authority—church and classical
antiquity—have played in the
creation and transmission of
knowledge at dierent points in
Europe’s history from 1450 to
the present.
OS-3 Explain how traditional
views of authority and forms of
knowledge coexisted with the
scientic method and reason.
OS-4 Evaluate the extent
to which new theories of
government and political
ideologies continued to
incorporate traditional
explanations based on religious
beliefs.
OS-5 Explain the emergence,
spread, and questioning of
scientic, technological,
and positivist approaches to
addressing social problems.
SP-2 Explain how and why
the political forms of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-3 Explain how and why the
economic roles of European
governments have changed
over time.
I. Enlightenment thought, which focused on concepts such as empiricism,
skepticism, human reason, rationalism, and classical sources of
knowledge, challenged the prevailing patterns of thought with respect to
social order, institutions of government, and the role of faith.
A. Intellectuals such as Voltaire
and Diderot began to apply
the principles of the Scientic
Revolution to society and
human institutions.
Illustrative examples, works applying
scientic principles to society:
w
Montesquieu’s The Spirit of the Laws
w
Cesare Beccaria’s On Crimes and
Punishments
B. Locke and Rousseau
developed new political
models based on the concept
of natural rights and the
social contract.
C. Despite the principles of
equality espoused by the
Enlightenment and the French
Revolution, intellectuals
such as Rousseau oered
controversial arguments for
the exclusion of women from
political life.
Illustrative examples, individuals
who challenged Rousseau’s position
on women:
w
Mary Wollstonecraft
w
Marquis de Condorcet
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.3
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
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Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 2.3 — The spread of Scientic Revolution concepts and
practices and the Enlightenment’s application of these concepts and
practices to political, social, and ethical issues led to an increased
but not unchallenged emphasis on reason in European culture.
SP-4 Describe the emergence
and development of political
theories and practices
that stressed the political
importance and rights of the
individual.
SP-7 Explain how and why
European governments have
moved toward or reacted
against representative and
democratic principles and
practices.
SP-8 Explain how and why
civic institutions developed
apart from governments and the
impact they had on European
states over time.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
IS-5 Explain how identities
such as ethnicity, race, gender,
religious aliation, and class
have aected the individual’s
relationship to society from
1450 to the present.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
I. Enlightenment thought, which focused on concepts such as empiricism,
skepticism, human reason, rationalism, and classical sources of
knowledge, challenged the prevailing patterns of thought with respect to
social order, institutions of government, and the role of faith.
(CONTINUED)
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.3
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Concept Outline
93
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 2.3 — The spread of Scientic Revolution concepts and
practices and the Enlightenment’s application of these concepts and
practices to political, social, and ethical issues led to an increased
but not unchallenged emphasis on reason in European culture.
INT-5 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped European culture,
politics, and society.
OS-1 Explain the roles
traditional sources of
authority—church and classical
antiquity—have played in the
creation and transmission of
knowledge at dierent points in
Europe’s history from 1450 to
the present.
OS-3 Explain how traditional
views of authority and forms of
knowledge coexisted with the
scientic method and reason.
OS-4 Evaluate the extent
to which new theories of
government and political
ideologies continued to
incorporate traditional
explanations based on
religious beliefs.
OS-5 Explain the emergence,
spread, and questioning of
scientic, technological,
and positivist approaches to
addressing social problems.
SP-2 Explain how and why
the political forms of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-3 Explain how and why the
economic roles of European
governments have changed
over time.
II. New public venues and print media popularized Enlightenment ideas.
A. A variety of institutions,
such as salons, explored and
disseminated Enlightenment
culture.
Illustrative examples, institutions
that broadened the audience for new
ideas:
w
Coeehouses
w
Academies
w
Lending libraries
w
Masonic lodges
B. Despite censorship,
increasingly numerous and
varied printed materials
served a growing literate
public and led to the
development of public
opinion.
Illustrative examples, printed
materials:
w
Newspapers
w
Periodicals
w
Books
w
Pamphlets
w
The Encyclopédie
C. Natural sciences, literature,
and popular culture
increasingly exposed
Europeans to representations
of peoples outside Europe
and, on occasion, challenges
to accepted social norms.
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.3
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Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 2.3 — The spread of Scientic Revolution concepts and
practices and the Enlightenment’s application of these concepts and
practices to political, social, and ethical issues led to an increased
but not unchallenged emphasis on reason in European culture.
SP-8 Explain how and why
civic institutions developed
apart from governments and the
impact they had on European
states over time.
IS-1 Explain the role of
technology in forming and
transforming European society.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
II. New public venues and print media popularized Enlightenment ideas.
(CONTINUED)
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.3
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Concept Outline
95
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 2.3 — The spread of Scientic Revolution concepts and
practices and the Enlightenment’s application of these concepts and
practices to political, social, and ethical issues led to an increased
but not unchallenged emphasis on reason in European culture.
PP-1 Explain how capitalism
has developed as an economic
system.
OS-2 Explain how political
revolution and war altered the
role of the church in political
and intellectual life, as well as
how religious authorities and
intellectuals responded to these
changes.
OS-3 Explain how traditional
views of authority and forms of
knowledge coexisted with the
scientic method and reason.
OS-4 Evaluate the extent
to which new theories of
government and political
ideologies continued to
incorporate traditional
explanations based on religious
beliefs.
OS-7 Explain how the values
of individualism, subjectivity,
and emotion were expressed in
dierent political ideologies and
cultural and artistic forms.
SP-1 Describe the political
forms and economic roles of
European governments from
1450 to the present.
SP-2 Explain how and why
the political forms of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-3 Explain how and why
the economic roles of European
governments have changed
over time.
III. New political and economic theories challenged absolutism and
mercantilism.
A. Political theories, such as
John Locke’s, conceived
of society as composed of
individuals driven by self-
interest and argued that the
state originated in the consent
of the governed (i.e., a social
contract) rather than in divine
right or tradition.
B. Mercantilist theory and
practice were challenged by
new economic ideas, such
as Adam Smith’s, which
espoused free trade and a free
market.
Illustrative examples, proponents of
new economic ideas:
w
Physiocrats
w
Francois Quesnay
w
Anne Robert Jacques Turgot
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.3
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Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 2.3 — The spread of Scientic Revolution concepts and
practices and the Enlightenment’s application of these concepts and
practices to political, social, and ethical issues led to an increased
but not unchallenged emphasis on reason in European culture.
SP-4 Describe the emergence
and development of political
theories and practices
that stressed the political
importance and rights of the
individual.
SP-8 Explain how and why
civic institutions developed
apart from governments and the
impact they had on European
states over time.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
III. New political and economic theories challenged absolutism and
mercantilism.
(CONTINUED)
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.3
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Concept Outline
97
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 2.3 — The spread of Scientic Revolution concepts and
practices and the Enlightenment’s application of these concepts and
practices to political, social, and ethical issues led to an increased
but not unchallenged emphasis on reason in European culture.
OS-2 Explain how political
revolution and war altered the
role of the church in political
and intellectual life, as well as
how religious authorities and
intellectuals responded to these
changes.
OS-3 Explain how traditional
views of authority and forms of
knowledge coexisted with the
scientic method and reason.
OS-4 Evaluate the extent
to which new theories of
government and political
ideologies continued to
incorporate traditional
explanations based on religious
beliefs.
OS-8 Evaluate the extent to
which, over time, religion
shifted from a matter of public
concern to one of private belief.
SP-5 Explain how the
relationship between states and
ecclesiastical authority changed
over time.
SP-6 Explain how religious
belief aected politics and
how the principle of religious
toleration emerged and changed
over time.
SP-7 Explain how and why
European governments have
moved toward or reacted
against representative and
democratic principles and
practices.
IV. During the Enlightenment, the rational analysis of religious practices led
to natural religion and the demand for religious toleration.
A. Intellectuals, including
Voltaire and Diderot,
developed new philosophies
of deism, skepticism, and
atheism.
Illustrative examples, intellectuals:
w
David Hume
w
Baron d’Holbach
B. Religion was viewed
increasingly as a matter of
private rather than public
concern.
Illustrative examples, religious
developments:
w
Methodism
w
Revival Of German Pietism
C. By 1800, most governments
in western and central Europe
had extended toleration to
Christian minorities and, in
some states, civil equality
to Jews.
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.3
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Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 2.3 — The spread of Scientic Revolution concepts and
practices and the Enlightenment’s application of these concepts and
practices to political, social, and ethical issues led to an increased
but not unchallenged emphasis on reason in European culture.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
IV. During the Enlightenment, the rational analysis of religious practices led
to natural religion and the demand for religious toleration.
(CONTINUED)
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.3
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Concept Outline
99
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 2.3 — The spread of Scientic Revolution concepts and
practices and the Enlightenment’s application of these concepts and
practices to political, social, and ethical issues led to an increased
but not unchallenged emphasis on reason in European culture.
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a result of
the development of capitalism.
OS-6 Explain how
individualism, subjectivity, and
emotion came to be considered
valid sources of knowledge over
time.
OS-7 Explain how the values
of individualism, subjectivity,
and emotion were expressed in
dierent political ideologies and
cultural and artistic forms.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
V. The arts moved from the celebration of religious themes and royal power
to an emphasis on private life and the public good.
A. Until about 1750, Baroque art
and music promoted religious
feeling and was employed by
monarchs to illustrate state
power.
Illustrative examples, Baroque
artists and musicians who promoted
religion or gloried monarchy:
w
Diego Velásquez
w
Gian Bernini
w
George Frideric Handel
w
J. S. Bach
B. Eighteenth-century art
and literature increasingly
reected the outlook and
values of commercial
and bourgeois society.
Neoclassicism expressed
new Enlightenment ideals
of citizenship and political
participation.
Illustrative examples, artistic
movements that reected commercial
society or Enlightenment ideals:
w
Dutch painting
w
Frans Hals
w
Rembrandt
w
Jan Vermeer
w
Jacques Louis David
w
Pantheon in Paris
Illustrative examples, literature that
reected commercial society or
Enlightenment ideals:
w
Daniel Defoe
w
Samuel Richardson
w
Henry Fielding
w
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
w
Jane Austen
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.3
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Concept Outline
▲
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 2.3 — The spread of Scientic Revolution concepts and
practices and the Enlightenment’s application of these concepts and
practices to political, social, and ethical issues led to an increased
but not unchallenged emphasis on reason in European culture.
OS-3 Explain how traditional
views of authority and forms of
knowledge coexisted with the
scientic method and reason.
OS-6 Explain how
individualism, subjectivity, and
emotion came to be considered
valid sources of knowledge over
time.
OS-7 Explain how the values
of individualism, subjectivity,
and emotion were expressed in
dierent political ideologies and
cultural and artistic forms.
OS-8 Evaluate the extent to
which, over time, religion
shifted from a matter of public
concern to one of private belief.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
VI. While Enlightenment values dominated the world of European ideas
and culture, they were challenged by the revival of public expression of
emotions and feeling.
A. Rousseau questioned the
exclusive reliance on reason
and emphasized the role
of emotions in the moral
improvement of self and
society.
B. Romanticism emerged as a
challenge to Enlightenment
rationality.
Illustrative examples, Romantic
culture:
w
Sir Walter Scott
w
Caspar David Friedrich
w
John Constable
w
J.M.W. Turner
w
Frederic Chopin
w
Ludwig van Beethoven
C. Consistent with the Romantic
Movement, religious revival
occurred in Europe and
included notable movements
such as Methodism, founded
by John Wesley.
D. Revolution, war, and rebellion
demonstrated the emotional
power of mass politics and
nationalism.
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.3
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Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
PP-2 Explain the impact
of the devel
opment of new
technologies and industries
on economic growth and the
standard of living in dierent
geographic regions.
Key Concept 2.4 — The experiences of everyday life were shaped
by demographic, environmental, medical, and technological
changes.
I. In the 17th century, small landholdings, low-productivity agricultural
practices, poor transportation, and adverse weather limited and disrupted
the food supply, causing periodic famines. By the 18th century, the
balance between population and the food supply stabilized, resulting in
steady population growth.
A. By the middle of the
18th century, higher
agricultural productivity
and improved transportation
increased the food supply,
allowing populations to grow
and reducing the number of
demographic crises (a process
known as the Agricultural
Revolution).
B. In the 18th century, plague
disappeared as a major
epidemic disease, and
inoculation reduced smallpox
mortality.
Illustrative examples, inoculation and
disease control:
w
Lady Mary Wortley Montagu
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.4
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Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 2.4 — The experiences of everyday life were shaped
by demographic, environmental, medical, and technological
changes.
PP-1 Explain how capitalism
has developed as an economic
system.
IS-2 Explain how family
life, relations between social
groups, and ideas about gender
have changed over time.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
II. The consumer revolution of the 18th century was shaped by a new
concern for privacy, encouraged the purchase of new goods for homes,
and created new venues for leisure activities.
Illustrative examples, a new concern
for privacy:
w
Homes were built to include private
retreats, such as the boudoir.
w
Novels encouraged a reection on
private emotion.
Illustrative examples, new consumer
goods for homes:
w
Porcelain dishes
Cotton and linens for home décor
w
w
Mirrors
w
Prints
Illustrative examples, new leisure
venues:
w
Coeehouses
w
Taverns
w
Theaters and opera houses
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.4
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Concept Outline
103
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 2.4 — The experiences of everyday life were shaped
by demographic, environmental, medical, and technological
changes.
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a result of
the development of capitalism.
IS-2 Explain how family
life, relations between social
groups, and ideas about gender
have changed over time.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
III. By the 18th century, family and private life reected new demographic
patterns and the eects of the commercial revolution.
A. Although the rate of
illegitimate births increased in
the 18th century, population
growth was limited by the
European marriage pattern,
and in some areas by various
birth control methods.
B. As infant and child mortality
decreased and commercial
wealth increased, families
dedicated more space and
resources to children and
child-rearing, as well as
private life and comfort.
Illustrative examples, increased
emphasis on childhood:
w
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
w
Education in Napoleonic France
and Austria
w
Painting and portraiture
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.4
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
104
Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 2.4 — The experiences of everyday life were shaped
by demographic, environmental, medical, and technological
changes.
PP-2 Explain the impact
of the development of new
technologies and industries
on economic growth and the
standard of living in dierent
geographic regions.
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a result of
the development of capitalism.
PP-4 Explain the causes and
consequences of economic
inequality.
PP-5 Explain how individuals,
groups, and the state responded
to economic developments
over time.
IS-1 Explain the role of
technology in forming and
transforming European society.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
IV. Cities oered economic opportunities, which attracted increasing
migration from rural areas, transforming urban life and creating
challenges for the new urbanites and their families.
A. The Agricultural Revolution
produced more food using
fewer workers; as a result,
people migrated from rural
areas to the cities in search
of work.
B. The growth of cities eroded
traditional communal values,
and city governments strained
to provide protection and a
healthy environment.
C. The concentration of the
poor in cities led to a greater
awareness of poverty, crime,
and prostitution as social
problems and prompted
increased eorts to police
marginal groups.
Illustrative examples, the problems of
urban life:
The new Poor Law in Britain (1834)
w
w
The Contagious Diseases Acts
Period 2: c. 1648–c. 1815
Key Concept 2.4
▲
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Concept Outline
105
c. 1450 – c. 1648 c. 1648 – c. 1815
c. 1815– c. 1914
c. 1914–PRESENT
PERIOD 3:
c. 1815 – c. 1914
Key Concept 3.1
The transition from an agricultural to an industrial economy began in Britain in the 18th
century, spread to France and Germany between 1850 and 1870, and nally spread to Russia
in the 1890s. The governments of those countries actively supported industrialization. In
southern and eastern Europe, some pockets of industry developed, surrounded by traditional
agrarian economies. Although continental nations sought to borrow from and in some
instances imitate the British model—the success of which was represented by the Crystal
Palace Exhibition in 1851—each nation’s experience of industrialization was shaped by its
own matrix of geographic, social, and political factors. The legacy of the revolution in France,
for example, led to a more gradual adoption of mechanization in production, ensuring a more
incremental industrialization than was the case in Britain. Despite the creation of a customs
union in the 1830s, Germany’s lack of political unity hindered its industrial development.
However, following unication in 1871, the German Empire quickly came to challenge British
dominance in key industries, such as steel, coal, and chemicals.
Beginning in the 1870s, the European economy uctuated widely because of the vagaries of
nancial markets. Continental states responded by assisting and protecting the development
of national industry in a variety of ways, the most important being protective taris, military
procurements, and colonial conquests. Key economic stakeholders, such as corporations
and industrialists, looked to national governments to promote economic development by
subsidizing ports, transportation, and new inventions; registering patents and sponsoring
education; encouraging investments and enforcing contracts; and maintaining order and
preventing labor strikes. In the 20th century, some national governments assumed far-
reaching control over their respective economies, largely in order to contend with the
challenges of war and nancial crises.
Key Concept 3.2
Industrialization promoted the development of new socioeconomic classes between 1815
and 1914. In highly industrialized areas, such as western and northern Europe, the new
economy created new social divisions, leading for the rst time to the development of self-
conscious economic classes, especially the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. In addition,
economic changes led to the rise of trade and industrial unions, benevolent associations,
sport clubs, and distinctive class-based cultures of dress, speech, values, and customs.
Europe also experienced rapid population growth and urbanization that resulted in benets
as well as social dislocations. The increased population created an enlarged labor force, but
in some areas migration from the countryside to the towns and cities led to overcrowding and
signicant emigration overseas.
Industrialization and urbanization changed the structure and relations of bourgeois and
working-class families to varying degrees. Birth control became increasingly common across
Europe, and childhood experience changed with the advent of protective legislation, universal
schooling, and smaller families. The growth of a cult of domesticity established new models
of gendered behavior for men and women. Gender roles became more clearly dened as
middle-class women withdrew from the workforce. At the same time, working-class women
increased their participation as wage laborers, although the middle class criticized them for
neglecting their families.
c. 1450 – c. 1648 c. 1648 – c. 1815
c. 1815– c. 1914
c. 1914–PRESENT
Industrialization and urbanization also changed people’s conception of time; in particular,
work and leisure were increasingly dierentiated by means of the imposition of strict work
schedules and the separation of the workplace from the home. Increasingly, trade unions
charged themselves as the protectors of workers and working-class families, lobbying
for improved working conditions and old-age pensions. Increasing leisure time spurred
the development of leisure activities and spaces for bourgeois families. Overall, although
inequality and poverty remained signicant social problems, the quality of material life
improved. For most social groups, the standard of living rose, the availability of consumer
products grew, and sanitary standards, medical care, and life expectancy improved.
Key Concept 3.3
The French and industrial revolutions triggered dramatic political and social consequences
and new theories to deal with them. The ideologies engendered by these 19th-century
revolutions—conservatism, liberalism, socialism, nationalism, and even romanticism—
provided their adherents with coherent views of the world and diering blueprints for change.
The responses to socioeconomic changes reached a culmination in the revolutions of 1848,
but the failure of these uprisings left the issues raised by the economic, political, and social
transformations unresolved well into the 20th century.
In the second half of the 19th century, labor leaders in many countries created unions and
syndicates to provide the working classes with a collective voice, and these organizations
used collective action such as strikes and movements for men’s universal surage to reinforce
their demands. Feminists and suragists petitioned and staged public protests to press their
demands for similar rights for women. The international movements for socialism, labor,
and women’s rights were important examples of a trend toward international cooperation
in a variety of causes, including antislavery and peace movements. Finally, political parties
emerged as sophisticated vehicles for advocating reform or reacting to changing conditions in
the political arena.
Nationalism acted as one of the most powerful engines of political change, inspiring
revolutions as well as campaigns by states for national unity or a higher degree of
centralization. Early nationalism emphasized shared historical and cultural experiences that
often threatened traditional elites. Over the course of the 19th century, leaders recognized the
need to promote national unity through economic development and expanding state functions
to meet the challenges posed by industry.
Key Concept 3.4
Following a quarter-century of revolutionary upheaval and war spurred by Napoleon’s imperial
ambitions, the Great Powers met in Vienna in 1814–1815 to re-establish a workable balance of
power and suppress liberal and nationalist movements for change. Austrian Foreign Minister
Klemens von Metternich led the way in creating an informal security arrangement to resolve
international disputes and stem revolution through common action among the Great Powers.
Nonetheless, revolutions aimed at liberalization of the political system and national self-
determination dened the period from 1815 to 1848.
The revolutions that swept Europe in 1848 were triggered by poor economic conditions,
frustration at the slow pace of political change, and unfullled nationalist aspirations. At
rst, revolutionary forces succeeded in establishing regimes dedicated to change or to
c. 1450 – c. 1648 c. 1648 – c. 1815
c. 1815– c. 1914
c. 1914–PRESENT
c. 1450 – c. 1648 c. 1648 – c. 1815
c. 1815– c. 1914
c. 1914–PRESENT
gaining independence from great-power domination. However, conservative forces, which still
controlled the military and bureaucracy, reasserted control. Although the revolutions of 1848
were, as George Macaulay Trevelyan quipped, a “turning point at which modern history failed
to turn,” they helped usher in a new type of European politics and diplomacy. Conservative
leaders, exemplied by Napoleon III of France, used popular nationalism to advance state
power and authoritarian rule. Further, the Crimean War (1853–1856), prompted by the decline
of the Ottoman Empire, shattered the Concert of Europe established in 1815 and opened the
door for the unications of Italy and Germany. Using the methods of Realpolitik, Cavour in
Italy and Bismarck in Germany succeeded in unifying their nations after centuries of disunity.
Their policies of war, diplomatic intrigue, and, in Bismarck’s instance, manipulation of
democratic mechanisms created states with the potential for upsetting the balance of power,
particularly in the case of Germany.
Following the Crimean War, Russia undertook a series of internal reforms aimed at achieving
industrial modernization. The reforms succeeded in establishing an industrial economy and
emboldened Russia’s aspirations in the Balkans. They also led to an active revolutionary
movement, which employed political violence and assassinations and was one of the driving
forces behind the 1905 Russian Revolution. After the new German Emperor Wilhelm II
dismissed Chancellor Bismarck in 1890, Germany’s diplomatic approach altered signicantly,
leading to a shift in the alliance system and increased tensions in European diplomacy.
Imperial antagonisms, growing nationalism, militarism, and other factors resulted in the
development of a rigid system of alliances. The Great Powers militarized their societies and
built up army and naval forces to unprecedented levels (fed by industrial and technological
advances), while at the same time developing elaborate plans for the next war.
The long-anticipated war nally came in the summer of 1914. The assassination of the heir to the
Austrian throne in Sarajevo forced the political leaders of the Great Powers, locked in the rigid
structure of the Triple Entente versus the Triple Alliance, to implement war plans that virtually
required the escalation of hostilities. The ensuing Great War revealed the aws in the diplomatic
order established after the unications of Germany and Italy, but more importantly, it produced
an even more challenging diplomatic situation than that faced by the diplomats in 1814–1815.
Key Concept 3.5
The European imperial outreach of the 19th century was in some ways a continuation of three
centuries of colonization, but it also resulted from the economic pressures and necessities of a
maturing industrial economy. The new technologies and imperatives of the second industrial
revolution (1870–1914) led many European nations to view overseas territories as sources
of raw materials and consumer markets. While European colonial empires in the Western
Hemisphere diminished in size over this period as former colonies gained independence,
the region remained dependent on Europe as a source of capital and technological expertise
and was a market for European-made goods. European powers also became increasingly
dominant in Eastern and Southern Asia in the early 19th century, and a combination of
forces created the conditions for a new wave of imperialism there and in Africa later in the
century. Moreover, European national rivalries accelerated the expansion of colonialism as
governments recognized that actual control of these societies oered economic and strategic
advantages. Notions of global destiny and racial superiority fed the drive for empire, and
innovations such as antimalarial drugs, machine guns, and gunboats made it feasible. Non-
European societies without these modern advantages could not eectively resist European
imperial momentum.
c. 1450 – c. 1648 c. 1648 – c. 1815
c. 1815– c. 1914
c. 1914–PRESENT
The “new imperialism” of the late 19th and early 20th centuries was promoted in European
nations by interest groups that included politicians, military ocials and soldiers,
missionaries, explorers, journalists, and intellectuals. As an example of a new complex phase
of imperial diplomacy, the Berlin Conference in 1884–1885 outlined the procedures that
Europeans should use in the partition of the African continent. By 1914, most of Africa and
Asia were under the domination of Great Britain, France, Portugal, Germany, Belgium, and
the Netherlands. Notwithstanding the power of colonial administrations, some groups in the
colonial societies resisted European imperialism, and by 1914, anticolonial movements had
taken root within the non-European world and in Europe itself.
Imperialism exposed Europeans to foreign societies and introduced “exotic” inuences
into European art and culture. At the same time, millions of Europeans carried their culture
abroad, to the Americas and elsewhere, through emigration, and helped to create a variety of
mixed cultures around the world.
Key Concept 3.6
The romantic movement of the early 19th century set the stage for later cultural perspectives
by encouraging individuals to cultivate their uniqueness and to trust intuition and emotion
as much as reason. Partly in reaction to the Enlightenment, romanticism armed the
value of sensitivity, imagination, and creativity and thereby provided a climate for artistic
experimentation. Later artistic movements such as Impressionism, Expressionism, and
Cubism, which rested on subjective interpretations of reality by the individual artist or writer,
arose from the attitudes fostered by romanticism. The sensitivity of artists to non-European
traditions that imperialism brought to their attention also can be traced to the romantics’
emphasis on the primacy of culture in dening the character of individuals and groups.
In science, Darwin’s evolutionary theory raised questions about human nature, and
physicists began to challenge the uniformity and regularity of the Newtonian universe. In
1905, Einstein’s theory of relativity underscored the position of the observer in dening
reality, while the quantum principles of randomness and probability called the objectivity
of Newtonian mechanics into question. The emergence of psychology as an independent
discipline, separate from philosophy on the one hand and neurology on the other, led to
investigations of human behavior that gradually revealed the need for more subtle methods of
analysis than those provided by the physical and biological sciences. Freud’s investigations
into the human psyche suggested the power of irrational motivations and unconscious drives.
Many writers saw humans as governed by spontaneous, irrational forces and believed
that intuition and will were as important as reason and science in the search for truth. In
art, literature, and science, traditional notions of objective, universal truths and values
increasingly shared the stage with a commitment to and recognition of subjectivity,
skepticism, and cultural relativism.
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
PP-1 Explain how capitalism
has developed as an economic
system.
PP-2 Explain the impact
of the development of new
technologies and industries
on economic growth and the
standard of living in dierent
geographic regions.
SP-1 Describe the political
forms and economic roles of
European governments from
1450 to the present.
SP-2 Explain how and why
the political forms of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-3 Explain how and why the
economic roles of European
governments have changed
over time.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
Key Concept 3.1 — The Industrial Revolution spread from Great
Britain to the continent, where the state played a greater role in
promoting industry.
I. Great Britain established its industrial dominance through the
mechanization of textile production, iron and steel production, and new
transportation systems in conjunction with uniquely favorable political
and social climates.
A. Britain’s ready supplies of
coal, iron ore, and other
essential raw materials
promoted industrial growth.
B. Economic institutions
and human capital such
as engineers, inventors,
and capitalists helped
Britain lead the process of
industrialization, largely
through private initiative.
Illustrative examples, Britain’s
leadership:
w
The Crystal Palace at the Great
Exhibition of 1851
w
Banks
w
Government nancial awards to
inventors
C. Britain’s parliamentary
government promoted
commercial and industrial
interests because those
interests were represented in
Parliament.
Illustrative examples, commercial
interests in government:
w
Repeal of the Corn Laws
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.1
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
112
Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 3.1 — The Industrial Revolution spread from Great
Britain to the continent, where the state played a greater role in
promoting industry.
PP-1 Explain how capitalism
has developed as an economic
system.
PP-2 Explain the impact
of the development of new
technologies and industries
on economic growth and the
standard of living in dierent
geographic regions.
SP-1 Describe the political
forms and economic roles of
European governments from
1450 to the present.
SP-2 Explain how and why
the political forms of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-3 Explain how and why the
economic roles of European
governments have changed
over time.
IS-1 Explain the role of
technology in forming and
transforming European society.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
II. Following the British example, industrialization took root in continental
Europe, sometimes with state sponsorship.
A. France moved toward
industrialization at a more
gradual pace than Great
Britain, with government
support and with less
dislocation of traditional
methods of production.
Illustrative examples, government
support of industrialization:
w
Canals
w
Railroads
w
Trade agreements
B. Industrialization in Prussia
allowed that state to
become the leader of a
unied Germany, which
subsequently underwent
rapid industrialization under
government sponsorship.
Illustrative examples,
industrialization in Prussia:
w
Zollverein
w
Investment in transportation
network
w
Adoption of improved methods of
manufacturing
w
Friedrich List’s National System
C. A combination of factors
including geography, lack
of resources, the dominance
of traditional landed elites,
the persistence of serfdom in
some areas, and inadequate
government sponsorship
accounted for eastern and
southern Europe’s lag in
industrial development.
Illustrative examples, geographic
factors in eastern and southern
europe:
w
Lack of resources
w
Lack of adequate transportation
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.1
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
113
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 3.1 — The Industrial Revolution spread from Great
Britain to the continent, where the state played a greater role in
promoting industry.
INT-2 Describe how political,
scientic, and technological
developments facilitated
European contact and
interaction with other parts of
the world.
INT-3 Explain how dierent
motives for promoting European
exploration and colonization
of overseas territories changed
from 1450 to the present.
INT-5 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped European culture,
politics, and society.
PP-1 Explain how capitalism
has developed as an economic
system.
PP-2 Explain the impact
of the development of new
technologies and industries
on economic growth and the
standard of living in dierent
geographic regions.
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a result of
the development of capitalism.
SP-1 Describe the political
forms and economic roles of
European governments from
1450 to the present.
SP-2 Explain how and why
the political forms of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-3 Explain how and why the
economic roles of European
governments have changed
over time.
III. During the second industrial revolution (c. 1870–1914), more areas of
Europe experienced industrial activity, and industrial processes increased
in scale and complexity.
A. Mechanization and the
factory system became
the predominant modes of
production by 1914.
Illustrative examples, factory
production:
Manchester, England
w
w
The Krupp family (Essen, Germany)
B. New technologies and means
of communication and
transportation—including
railroads—resulted in more
fully integrated national
economies, a higher level
of urbanization, and a truly
global economic network.
Illustrative examples, new
technologies:
Bessemer process
w
w
Mass production
Electricity
w
w
Chemicals
Illustrative examples, developments
in communication and transportation:
w
Telegraph
w
Steamship
w
Streetcars or trolley cars
w
Telephones
w
Internal combustion engine
w
Airplane
w
Radio
C. Volatile business cycles
in the last quarter of the
19th century led corporations
and governments to try to
manage the market through a
variety of methods, including
monopolies, banking
practices, and taris.
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.1
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
114
Concept Outline
▲
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.1
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 3.1 — The Industrial Revolution spread from Great
Britain to the continent, where the state played a greater role in
promoting industry.
IS-1 Explain the role of
technology in forming and
transforming European society.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
III. During the second industrial revolution (c. 1870–1914), more areas of
Europe experienced industrial activity, and industrial processes increased
in scale and complexity.
(CONTINUED)
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© 2017 The College Board
AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
115
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a r
esult of
the development of capitalism.
IS-1 Explain the role of
technology in forming and
transforming European society.
IS-2 Explain how family
life, relations between social
groups, and ideas about gender
have changed over time.
IS-3 Explain how and why
tensions have arisen between
the individual and society over
the course of European history.
IS-5 Explain how identities
such as ethnicity, race, gender,
religious aliation, and class
have aected the individual’s
relationship to society from
1450 to the present.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
I. Industrialization promoted the development of new classes in the
industrial regions of Europe.
Key Concept 3.2 — The experiences of everyday life were
shaped by industrialization, depending on the level of industrial
development in a particular location.
A. In industrialized areas
of Europe (i.e., western
and northern Europe),
socioeconomic changes
created divisions of labor that
led to the development of
self-conscious classes, such
as the proletariat and the
bourgeoisie.
B. In some of the less
industrialized areas of
Europe, the dominance of
agricultural elites continued
into the 20th century.
C. Class identity developed
and was reinforced through
participation in philanthropic,
political, and social
associations among the
middle classes, and in mutual
aid societies and trade unions
among the working classes.
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.2
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
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Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 3.2 — The experiences of everyday life were
shaped by industrialization, depending on the level of industrial
development in a particular location.
PP-2 Explain the impact
of the development of new
technologies and industries
on economic growth and the
standard of living in dierent
geographic regions.
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a result of
the development of capitalism.
PP-5 Explain how individuals,
groups, and the state responded
to economic developments over
time.
II. Europe experienced rapid population growth and urbanization, leading to
social dislocations.
A. Along with better harvests
caused in part by the
commercialization of
agriculture, industrialization
promoted population growth,
longer life expectancy, and
lowered infant mortality.
B. With migration from rural to
urban areas in industrialized
regions, cities experienced
overcrowding, while aected
rural areas suered declines
in available labor as well as
weakened communities.
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.2
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
117
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 3.2 — The experiences of everyday life were
shaped by industrialization, depending on the level of industrial
development in a particular location.
PP-2 Explain the impact
of the development of new
technologies and industries
on economic growth and the
standard of living in dierent
geographic regions.
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a result of
the development of capitalism.
PP-5 Explain how individuals,
groups, and the state responded
to economic developments over
time.
OS-3 Explain how traditional
views of authority and forms of
knowledge coexisted with the
scientic method and reason.
OS-5 Explain the emergence,
spread, and questioning of
scientic, technological,
and positivist approaches to
addressing social problems.
IS-2 Explain how family
life, relations between social
groups, and ideas about gender
have changed over time.
IS-3 Explain how and why
tensions have arisen between
the individual and society over
the course of European history.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
IS-5 Explain how identities
such as ethnicity, race, gender,
religious aliation, and class
have aected the individual’s
relationship to society from
1450 to the present.
III. Over time, the Industrial Revolution altered the family structure and
relations for bourgeois and working-class families.
A. Bourgeois families became
focused on the nuclear family
and the cult of domesticity,
with distinct gender roles for
men and women.
B. By the end of the century,
higher wages, laws restricting
the labor of children and
women, social welfare
programs, improved diet,
and increased access to birth
control aected the quality of
life for the working class.
Illustrative examples, laws restricting
the labor of children and women:
w
Factory Act of 1833
w
Mines Act of 1842
w
Ten Hours Act of 1847
C. Economic motivations for
marriage, while still important
for all classes, diminished
as the middle-class notion
of companionate marriage
began to be adopted by the
working classes.
D. Leisure time centered
increasingly on the family or
small groups, concurrent with
the development of activities
and spaces to use that time.
Illustrative examples, leisure time
activities and spaces:
w
Parks
w
Sports clubs and arenas
w
Beaches
w
Department stores
w
Museums
w
Theaters
w
Opera houses
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.2
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Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 3.2 — The experiences of everyday life were
shaped by industrialization, depending on the level of industrial
development in a particular location.
PP-1 Explain how capitalism
has developed as an economic
system.
PP-2 Explain the impact
of the development of new
technologies and industries
on economic growth and the
standard of living in dierent
geographic regions.
IS-1 Explain the role of
technology in forming and
transforming European society.
IV. A heightened consumerism developed as a result of the second industrial
revolution.
A. Industrialization and mass
marketing increased both
the production and demand
for a new range of consumer
goods—including clothing,
processed foods, and labor-
saving devices—and created
more leisure opportunities.
Illustrative examples, mass
marketing:
w
Advertising
w
Department stores
w
Catalogs
B. New ecient methods of
transportation and other
innovations created new
industries, improved the
distribution of goods,
increased consumerism, and
enhanced the quality of life.
Illustrative examples, new ecient
methods of transportation and other
innovations:
w
Steamships
Railroads
w
w
Refrigerated rail cars
w
Ice boxes
w
Streetcars
w
Bicycles
Illustrative examples, new industries
during the second industrial
revolution:
w
Chemical industry
w
Electricity and utilities
w
Automobile
w
Leisure travel
w
Professional and leisure sports
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.2
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Concept Outline
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Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 3.2 — The experiences of everyday life were
shaped by industrialization, depending on the level of industrial
development in a particular location.
PP-2 Explain the impact
of the development of new
technologies and industries
on economic growth and the
standard of living in dierent
geographic regions.
PP-4 Explain the causes and
consequences of economic
inequality.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
V. Because of the continued existence of more primitive agricultural
practices and land-owning patterns, some areas of Europe lagged in
industrialization while facing famine, debt, and land shortages.
Illustrative examples, primitive
agricultural practices and famines:
w
The “Hungry ’40s”
w
Irish potato famine
w
Russian serfdom
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.2
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Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a r
esult of
the development of capitalism.
PP-4 Explain the causes and
consequences of economic
inequality.
PP-5 Explain how individuals,
groups, and the state responded
to economic and social
inequality over time.
OS-2 Explain how political
revolution and war altered the
role of the church in political
and intellectual life, as well as
how religious authorities and
intellectuals responded to these
changes.
OS-3 Explain how traditional
views of authority and forms of
knowledge coexisted with the
scientic method and reason.
OS-4 Evaluate the extent to which
new theories of government and
political ideologies continued
to incorporate traditional
explanations based on religious
beliefs.
OS-5 Explain the emergence,
spread, and questioning of
scientic, technological,
and positivist approaches to
addressing social problems.
OS-6 Explain how individualism,
subjectivity, and emotion came
to be considered valid sources of
knowledge over time.
OS-7 Explain how the values
of individualism, subjectivity,
and emotion were expressed in
dierent political ideologies and
cultural and artistic forms.
Key Concept 3.3 — Political revolutions and the complications
resulting from industrialization triggered a range of ideological,
governmental, and collective responses.
I. Ideologies developed and took root throughout society as a response to
industrial and political revolutions.
A. Liberals emphasized popular
sovereignty, individual rights,
and enlightened self-interest
but debated the extent to
which all groups in society
should actively participate in
its governance.
Illustrative examples, liberals:
w
Jeremy Bentham
w
Anti-Corn Law League
John Stuart Mill
w
B. Radicals in Britain and
republicans on the continent
demanded universal male
surage and full citizenship
without regard to wealth
and property ownership;
some argued that such
rights should be extended to
women.
Illustrative examples, advocates of
surage:
w
Chartists
w
Flora Tristan
C. Conservatives developed
a new ideology in support
of traditional political and
religious authorities, which
was based on the idea that
human nature was not
perfectible.
Illustrative examples, conservatives:
Edmund Burke
w
w
Joseph de Maistre
w
Klemens von Metternich
D. Socialists called for the
redistribution of society’s
resources and wealth and
evolved from a utopian to a
Marxist scientic critique of
capitalism.
Illustrative examples, utopian
socialists:
w
Henri de Saint-Simon
w
Charles Fourier
w
Robert Owen
Illustrative examples, Marxists:
w
Friedrich Engels
w
Clara Zetkin
w
Rosa Luxemburg
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.3
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Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 3.3 — Political revolutions and the complications
resulting from industrialization triggered a range of ideological,
governmental, and collective responses.
SP-1 Describe the political
forms and economic roles of
European governments from
1450 to the present.
SP-2 Explain how and why
the political forms of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-3 Explain how and why the
economic roles of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-4 Describe the emergence
and development of political
theories and practices
that stressed the political
importance and rights of the
individual.
SP-5 Explain how the
relationship between states and
ecclesiastical authority changed
over time.
SP-6 Explain how religious
belief aected politics and
how the principle of religious
toleration emerged and changed
over time.
SP-7 Explain how and why
European governments have
moved toward or reacted
against representative and
democratic principles and
practices.
SP-8 Explain how and why
civic institutions developed
apart from governments and the
impact they had on European
states over time.
I. Ideologies developed and took root throughout society as a response to
industrial and political revolutions.
(CONTINUED)
E. Anarchists asserted that
all forms of governmental
authority were unnecessary
and should be overthrown
and replaced with a
society based on voluntary
cooperation.
Illustrative examples, anarchists:
Mikhail Bakunin
w
w
Georges Sorel
F. Nationalists encouraged
loyalty to the nation in a
variety of ways, including
romantic idealism,
liberal reform, political
unication, racialism with a
concomitant anti-Semitism,
and chauvinism justifying
national aggrandizement.
Illustrative examples, nationalists:
w
J. G. Fichte
w
Grimm Brothers
w
Giuseppe Mazzini
w
Pan-Slavists
Illustrative examples, anti-Semitism:
w
Dreyfus aair
w
Christian Social Party in Germany
w
Karl Lueger, mayor of Vienna
G. While during the 19th century
western European Jews
became more socially and
politically acculturated,
Zionism, a form of Jewish
nationalism, developed late
in the century as a response
to growing anti-Semitism
throughout Europe.
Illustrative example, Zionists:
w
Theodor Herzl
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.3
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Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 3.3 — Political revolutions and the complications
resulting from industrialization triggered a range of ideological,
governmental, and collective responses.
SP-10 Explain how the concept
of a balance of power emerged,
developed, and eventually
became institutionalized over
time.
IS-2 Explain how family
life, relations between social
groups, and ideas about gender
have changed over time.
IS-3 Explain how and why
tensions have arisen between
the individual and society over
the course of European history.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
IS-5 Explain how identities
such as ethnicity, race, gender,
religious aliation, and class
have aected the individual’s
relationship to society from
1450 to the present.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
I. Ideologies developed and took root throughout society as a response to
industrial and political revolutions.
(CONTINUED)
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.3
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Concept Outline
123
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 3.3 — Political revolutions and the complications
resulting from industrialization triggered a range of ideological,
governmental, and collective responses.
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a result of
the development of capitalism.
PP-5 Explain how individuals,
groups, and the state responded
to economic developments over
time.
OS-5 Explain the emergence,
spread, and questioning of
scientic, technological,
and positivist approaches to
addressing social problems.
OS-8 Evaluate the extent to
which, over time, religion
shifted from a matter of public
concern to one of private belief.
SP-1 Describe the political
forms and economic roles of
European governments from
1450 to the present.
SP-2 Explain how and why
the political forms of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-3 Explain how and why the
economic roles of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-4 Describe the emergence
and development of political
theories and practices
that stressed the political
importance and rights of the
individual.
SP-8 Explain how and why
civic institutions developed
apart from governments and the
impact they had on European
states over time.
II. Governments, at times based on the pressure of political or social
organizations, responded to problems created or exacerbated by
industrialization.
A. Liberalism shifted from
laissez-faire to interventionist
economic and social policies
in response to the challenges
of industrialization.
B. Reforms transformed
unhealthy and overcrowded
cities by modernizing
infrastructure, regulating
public health, reforming
prisons, and establishing
modern police forces. The
reforms were enacted by
governments motivated by
such forces as public opinion,
prominent individuals, and
charity organizations.
Illustrative examples, modernizing
infrastructure:
w
Sewage and water systems
w
Public lighting
w
Public housing
w
Urban redesign
w
Parks
Public transportation
w
w
Edwin Chadwick
w
Georges Haussmann
C. Reformers promoted
compulsory public education
to advance the goals of public
order, nationalism, and
economic growth.
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.3
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Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 3.3 — Political revolutions and the complications
resulting from industrialization triggered a range of ideological,
governmental, and collective responses.
IS-1 Explain the role of
technology in forming and
transforming European society.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
II. Governments, at times based on the pressure of political or social
organizations, responded to problems created or exacerbated by
industrialization.
(CONTINUED)
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.3
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
125
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 3.3 — Political revolutions and the complications
resulting from industrialization triggered a range of ideological,
governmental, and collective responses.
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a result of
the development of capitalism.
PP-5 Explain how individuals,
groups, and the state responded
to economic developments over
time.
OS-3 Explain how traditional
views of authority and forms of
knowledge coexisted with the
scientic method and reason.
OS-5 Explain the emergence,
spread, and questioning of
scientic, technological,
and positivist approaches to
addressing social problems.
SP-1 Describe the political
forms and economic roles of
European governments from
1450 to the present.
SP-2 Explain how and why
the political forms of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-3 Explain how and why the
economic roles of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-4 Describe the emergence
and development of political
theories and practices that
stressed the political importance
and rights of the individual.
SP-7 Explain how and why
European governments have
moved toward or reacted
against representative and
democratic principles and
practices.
III. Political movements and social organizations responded to problems of
industrialization.
A. Mass-based political parties
emerged as sophisticated
vehicles for social, economic,
and political reform.
Illustrative examples, mass-based
political parties:
w
Conservatives and Liberals in Great
Britain
w
Conservatives and Socialists in
France
w
Social Democratic Party in Germany
B. Workers established labor
unions and movements
promoting social and
economic reforms that also
developed into political
parties.
Illustrative examples, political parties
representing workers:
w
German Social Democratic Party
w
British Labour Party
w
Russian Social Democratic Party
C. Feminists pressed for legal,
economic, and political
rights for women as well as
improved working conditions.
Illustrative examples, feminists and
feminist movements:
w
Flora Tristan
w
British Women’s Social and Political
Union
w
Pankhurst family
w
Barbara Smith Bodichon
D. Various nongovernmental
reform movements, many
of them religious, assisted
the poor and worked to end
serfdom and slavery.
Illustrative examples, reform
movements and social reformers:
w
The Sunday School movement
w
The temperance movement
w
British abolitionist movement
Josephine Butler
w
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.3
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
126
Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 3.3 — Political revolutions and the complications
resulting from industrialization triggered a range of ideological,
governmental, and collective responses.
SP-8 Explain how and why
civic institutions developed
apart from governments and the
impact they had on European
states over time.
IS-2 Explain how family
life, relations between social
groups, and ideas about gender
have changed over time.
IS-3 Explain how and why
tensions have arisen between
the individual and society over
the course of European history.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
IS-5 Explain how identities
such as ethnicity, race, gender,
religious aliation, and class
have aected the individual’s
relationship to society from
1450 to the present.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
III. Political movements and social organizations responded to problems of
industrialization.
(CONTINUED)
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.3
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Concept Outline
127
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
PP-5 Explain how individuals,
groups, and the sta
te responded
to economic developments over
time.
OS-2 Explain how political
revolution and war altered the
role of the church in political
and intellectual life, as well as
how religious authorities and
intellectuals responded to these
changes.
OS-4 Evaluate the extent
to which new theories of
government and political
ideologies continued to
incorporate traditional
explanations based on religious
beliefs.
SP-1 Describe the political
forms and economic roles of
European governments from
1450 to the present.
SP-2 Explain how and why
the political forms of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-3 Explain how and why the
economic roles of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-4 Describe the emergence
and development of political
theories and practices
that stressed the political
importance and rights of the
individual.
SP-5 Explain how the
relationship between states and
ecclesiastical authority changed
over time.
Key Concept 3.4 — European states struggled to maintain
international stability in an age of nationalism and revolutions.
I. The Concert of Europe (or Congress System) sought to maintain the
status quo through collective action and adherence to conservatism.
A. Metternich, architect of the
Concert of Europe, used it
to suppress nationalist and
liberal revolutions.
B. Conservatives re-established
control in many European
states and attempted to
suppress movements for
change and, in some areas,
to strengthen adherence to
religious authorities.
C. In the rst half of the
19th century, revolutionaries
attempted to destroy the
status quo.
Illustrative examples, early
19th-century political revolts:
w
War of Greek Independence
w
Decembrist revolt in Russia
w
Polish rebellion
w
July Revolution in France
D. The revolutions of 1848,
triggered by economic
hardship and discontent
with the political status quo,
challenged conservative
politicians and governments
and led to the breakdown of
the Concert of Europe.
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.4
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Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 3.4 — European states struggled to maintain
international stability in an age of nationalism and revolutions.
SP-6 Explain how religious
belief aected politics and
how the principle of religious
toleration emerged and changed
over time.
SP-9 Explain how and why
changes in warfare aected
diplomacy, the European state
system, and the balance of
power.
SP-10 Explain how the concept
of a balance of power emerged,
developed, and eventually
became institutionalized over
time.
IS-2 Explain how family
life, relations between social
groups, and ideas about gender
have changed over time.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
I. The Concert of Europe (or Congress System) sought to maintain the
status quo through collective action and adherence to conservatism.
(CONTINUED)
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.4
▲
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Concept Outline
129
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 3.4 — European states struggled to maintain
international stability in an age of nationalism and revolutions.
PP-4 Explain the causes and
consequences of economic
inequality.
PP-5 Explain how individuals,
groups, and the state responded
to economic developments over
time.
OS-7 Explain how the values
of individualism, subjectivity,
and emotion were expressed in
dierent political ideologies and
cultural and artistic forms.
SP-1 Describe the political
forms and economic roles of
European governments from
1450 to the present.
SP-2 Explain how and why
the political forms of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-3 Explain how and why the
economic roles of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-9 Explain how and why
changes in warfare aected
diplomacy, the European state
system, and the balance of
power.
SP-10 Explain how the concept
of a balance of power emerged,
developed, and eventually
became institutionalized over
time.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
II. The breakdown of the Concert of Europe opened the door for movements
of national unication in Italy and Germany as well as liberal reforms
elsewhere.
A. The Crimean War
demonstrated the weakness
of the Ottoman Empire
and contributed to the
breakdown of the Concert
of Europe, thereby creating
the conditions in which
Italy and Germany could
be unied after centuries of
fragmentation.
B. A new generation of
conservative leaders,
including Napoleon III,
Cavour, and Bismarck, used
popular nationalism to create
or strengthen the state.
C. The creation of the dual
monarchy of Austria-Hungary,
which recognized the political
power of the largest ethnic
minority, was an attempt
to stabilize the state by
reconguring national unity.
D. In Russia, autocratic leaders
pushed through a program
of reform and modernization,
including the emancipation
of the serfs, which gave rise
to revolutionary movements
and eventually the Russian
Revolution of 1905.
Illustrative examples, reformers in
Russia:
w
Alexander II
w
Sergei Witte
w
Peter Stolypin
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.4
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Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 3.4 — European states struggled to maintain
international stability in an age of nationalism and revolutions.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
II. The breakdown of the Concert of Europe opened the door for movements
of national unication in Italy and Germany as well as liberal reforms
elsewhere.
(CONTINUED)
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.4
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131
international stability in an age of nationalism and revolution
SP-9 Explain how and why
changes in warfare aected
diplomacy, the European state
system, and the balance of
power.
SP-10 Explain how the concept
of a balance of power emerged,
developed, and eventually
became institutionalized over
time.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
III. The unication of Italy and Germany transformed the European balance
of power and led to eorts to construct a new diplomatic order.
A. Cavour’s diplomatic
strategies, combined with
the popular Garibaldi’s
military campaigns, led to the
unication of Italy.
B. Bismarck used Realpolitik,
employing diplomacy,
industrialized warfare,
weaponry, and the
manipulation of democratic
mechanisms to unify
Germany.
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 3.4 — European states struggled to maintain
s.
C. After 1871, Bismarck
attempted to maintain the
balance of power through a
complex system of alliances
directed at isolating France.
Illustrative examples, Bismarck’s
alliances:
w
Three Emperors’ League
w
Triple Alliance
w
Reinsurance Treaty
D. Bismarck’s dismissal in 1890
eventually led to a system
of mutually antagonistic
alliances and heightened
international tensions.
E. Nationalist tensions in the
Balkans drew the Great
Powers into a series of crises,
leading up to World War I.
Illustrative examples, nationalist
tensions in the Balkans:
w
Congress of Berlin in 1878
w
Growing inuence of Serbia
w
Bosnia-Herzegovina annexation
crisis, 1908
w
First Balkan War
w
Second Balkan War
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.4
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Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
INT-1 Describe how economic,
religious, cultural, and political
motives inuenced European
exploration and colonization of
overseas territories.
INT-3 Explain how dierent
motives for promoting European
exploration and colonization
of overseas territories changed
from 1450 to the present.
INT-4 Evaluate why dierent
motives for promoting European
exploration and colonization
of overseas territories changed
from 1450 to the present.
INT-5 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped European culture,
politics, and society.
INT-6 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped non-European
culture, politics, and society.
SP-9 Explain how and why
changes in warfare aected
diplomacy, the European state
system, and the balance of
power.
SP-10 Explain how the concept
of a balance of power emerged,
developed, and eventually
became institutionalized over
time.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
Key Concept 3.5 — A variety of motives and methods led to the
intensication of European global control and increased tensions
among the Great Powers.
I. European nations were driven by economic, political, and cultural
motivations in their new imperial ventures in Asia and Africa.
A. European national rivalries
and strategic concerns
fostered imperial expansion
and competition for colonies.
B. The search for raw
materials and markets for
manufactured goods, as well
as strategic and nationalistic
considerations, drove
Europeans to colonize Africa
and Asia, even as European
colonies in the Americas
broke free politically, if not
economically.
C. European imperialists
justied overseas expansion
and rule by claiming cultural
and racial superiority.
Illustrative examples, ideas of
cultural and racial superiority:
w
“The White Man’s Burden”
w
Mission civilisatrice
w
Social Darwinism
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.5
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Concept Outline
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Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 3.5 — A variety of motives and methods led to the
intensication of European global control and increased tensions
among the Great Powers.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
I. European nations were driven by economic, political, and cultural
motivations in their new imperial ventures in Asia and Africa.
(CONTINUED)
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.5
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
134
Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 3.5 — A variety of motives and methods led to the
intensication of European global control and increased tensions
among the Great Powers.
INT-2 Describe how political,
scientic, and technological
developments facilitated
European contact and
interaction with other parts of
the world.
INT-3 Explain how dierent
motives for promoting European
exploration and colonization
of overseas territories changed
from 1450 to the present.
INT-4 Evaluate why dierent
motives for promoting European
exploration and colonization
of overseas territories changed
from 1450 to the present.
OS-3 Explain how traditional
views of authority and forms of
knowledge coexisted with the
scientic method and reason.
SP-9 Explain how and why
changes in warfare aected
diplomacy, the European state
system, and the balance of
power.
IS-1 Explain the role of
technology in forming and
transforming European society.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
II. Industrial and technological developments (i.e., the second industrial
revolution) facilitated European control of global empires.
A. The development of
advanced weaponry ensured
the military advantage of
Europeans over colonized
areas.
Illustrative examples, advanced
weaponry:
w
Minié ball (bullet)
w
Breech-loading rie
w
Machine gun
B. Communication and
transportation technologies
facilitated the creation and
expansion of European
empires.
Illustrative examples, communication
and transportation technologies:
w
Steamships
Railroads
w
w
Telegraph
Photography
w
C. Advances in medicine
enabled European survival in
Africa and Asia.
Illustrative examples, advances in
medicine:
w
Louis Pasteur’s germ theory of
disease
w
Anesthesia and antiseptics
w
Public health projects
w
Quinine
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.5
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
135
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 3.5 — A variety of motives and methods led to the
intensication of European global control and increased tensions
among the Great Powers.
INT-5 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped European culture,
politics, and society.
INT-6 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped non-European
culture, politics, and society.
OS-3 Explain how traditional
views of authority and forms of
knowledge coexisted with the
scientic method and reason.
SP-7 Explain how and why
European governments have
moved toward or reacted
against representative and
democratic principles and
practices.
SP-10 Explain how the concept
of a balance of power emerged,
developed, and eventually
became institutionalized over
time.
IS-3 Explain how and why
tensions have arisen between
the individual and society over
the course of European history.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
IS-5 Explain how identities
such as ethnicity, race, gender,
religious aliation, and class
have aected the individual’s
relationship to society from
1450 to the present.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
III. Imperial endeavors signicantly aected society, diplomacy, and culture
in Europe and created resistance to foreign control abroad.
A. Imperialism created
diplomatic tensions among
European states that strained
alliance systems.
Illustrative examples, diplomatic
tensions:
w
Berlin Conference (1884–1885)
w
Fashoda crisis (1898)
w
Moroccan crises (1905, 1911)
B. Imperial encounters with non-
European peoples inuenced
the styles and subject matter
of artists and writers and
provoked debate over the
acquisition of colonies.
Illustrative examples, artists and
writers and works:
w
Jules Verne’s literature of
exploration
w
Paul Gauguin and Pablo Picasso’s
Primitivism
w
Vincent Van Gogh and Japanese
prints
w
Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness
Illustrative examples, participants in
the imperialism debate:
w
Pan-German League
w
J. A. Hobson’s and Vladimir Lenin’s
anti-imperialism
w
E.D Morel and the Congo Reform
Association
C. Especially as non-Europeans
became educated in Western
values, they challenged
European imperialism through
nationalist movements and by
modernizing local economies
and societies.
Illustrative examples, responses to
European imperialism:
w
Indian Congress Party
w
Zulu Resistance
w
India’s Sepoy Mutiny
w
China’s Boxer Rebellion
w
Japan’s Meiji Restoration
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.5
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
136
Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 3.5 — A variety of motives and methods led to the
intensication of European global control and increased tensions
among the Great Powers.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
III. Imperial endeavors signicantly aected society, diplomacy, and culture
in Europe and created resistance to foreign control abroad.
(CONTINUED)
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.5
▲
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Concept Outline
137
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a result of
the development of capitalism.
OS-6 Explain how
individualism, subjectivity, and
emotion came to be considered
valid sources of knowledge over
time.
OS-7 Explain how the values
of individualism, subjectivity,
and emotion were expressed in
dierent political ideologies and
cultural and artistic forms.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
Key Concept 3.6 — European ideas and culture expressed a
tension between objectivity and scientic realism on one hand, and
subjectivity and individual expression on the other.
I. Romanticism broke with Neoclassical forms of artistic representation and
with rationalism, placing more emphasis on intuition and emotion.
A. Romantic artists and
composers broke from
classical artistic forms to
emphasize emotion, nature,
individuality, intuition, the
supernatural, and national
histories in their works.
Illustrative examples, Romantic
artists:
w
Francisco Goya
w
Caspar David Friedrich
J.M.W. Turner
w
John Constable
w
w
Eugène Delacroix
Illustrative examples, romantic
composers:
w
Ludwig van Beethoven
w
Frédéric Chopin
w
Richard Wagner
w
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
B. Romantic writers expressed
similar themes while
responding to the Industrial
Revolution and to various
political revolutions.
Illustrative examples, Romantic
writers:
w
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
William Wordsworth
w
Lord Byron
w
w
Percy Shelley
w
John Keats
w
Mary Shelley
w
Victor Hugo
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.6
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
138
Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 3.6 — European ideas and culture expressed a
tension between objectivity and scientic realism on one hand, and
subjectivity and individual expression on the other.
INT-1 Describe how economic,
religious, cultural, and political
motives inuenced European
exploration and colonization of
overseas territories.
INT-3 Explain how dierent
motives for promoting European
exploration and colonization
of overseas territories changed
from 1450 to the present.
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a result of
the development of capitalism.
PP-4 Explain the causes and
consequences of economic
inequality.
PP-5 Explain how individuals,
groups, and the state responded
to economic developments over
time.
OS-5 Explain the emergence,
spread, and questioning of
scientic, technological,
and positivist approaches to
addressing social problems.
IS-3 Explain how and why
tensions have arisen between
the individual and society over
the course of European history.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
IS-5 Explain how identities
such as ethnicity, race, gender,
religious aliation, and class
have aected the individual’s
relationship to society from
1450 to the present.
II. Following the revolutions of 1848, Europe turned toward a realist and
materialist worldview.
A. Positivism, or the philosophy
that science alone provides
knowledge, emphasized
the rational and scientic
analysis of nature and human
aairs.
B. Charles Darwin provided
a scientic and material
account of biological change
and the development
of human beings as a
species, and inadvertently,
a justication for racialist
theories that became known
as Social Darwinism.
C. Marx’s scientic socialism
provided a systematic
critique of capitalism and
a deterministic analysis
of society and historical
evolution.
D. Realist and materialist themes
and attitudes inuenced art
and literature as painters and
writers depicted the lives of
ordinary people and drew
attention to social problems.
Illustrative examples, realist artists
and authors:
w
Honoré de Balzac
w
Honoré Daumier
w
Charles Dickens
w
George Eliot
Gustave Courbet
w
w
Fyodor Dostoevsky
w
Jean-François Millet
Leo Tolstoy
w
w
Émile Zola
w
Thomas Hardy
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.6
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
139
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 3.6 — European ideas and culture expressed a
tension between objectivity and scientic realism on one hand, and
subjectivity and individual expression on the other.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
II. Following the revolutions of 1848, Europe turned toward a realist and
materialist worldview.
(CONTINUED)
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.6
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
140
Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 3.6 — European ideas and culture expressed a
tension between objectivity and scientic realism on one hand, and
subjectivity and individual expression on the other.
OS-5 Explain the emergence,
spread, and questioning of
scientic, technological,
and positivist approaches to
addressing social problems.
OS-6 Explain how
individualism, subjectivity, and
emotion came to be considered
valid sources of knowledge over
time.
OS-7 Explain how the values
of individualism, subjectivity,
and emotion were expressed in
dierent political ideologies and
cultural and artistic forms.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
III. In the later 19th century, a new relativism in values and the loss
of condence in the objectivity of knowledge led to modernism in
intellectual and cultural life.
A. Philosophy largely moved
from rational interpretations
of nature and human
society to an emphasis on
irrationality and impulse,
a view that contributed to
the belief that conict and
struggle led to progress.
Illustrative examples, philosophers
who emphasized the irrational:
w
Friedrich Nietzsche
w
Georges Sorel
w
Henri Bergson
B. Freudian psychology oered a
new account of human nature
that emphasized the role of
the irrational and the struggle
between the conscious and
subconscious.
C. Developments in the
natural sciences, such as
quantum mechanics and
Einstein’s theory of relativity,
undermined the primacy
of Newtonian physics as
an objective description of
nature.
Illustrative examples, scientists
who undermined the notion that
Newtonian physics provided an
objective knowledge of nature:
w
Max Planck
Marie and Pierre Curie
w
D. Modern art, including
Impressionism, Post-
Impressionism, and
Cubism, moved beyond
the representational to the
subjective, abstract, and
expressive and often provoked
audiences that believed that
art should reect shared
and idealized values such as
beauty and patriotism.
Illustrative examples, modern artists:
w
Claude Monet
w
Paul Cézanne
w
Henri Matisse
w
Edgar Degas
w
Pablo Picasso
w
Vincent Van Gogh
Period 3: c. 1815–c. 1914
Key Concept 3.6
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141
c. 1450 – c. 1648 c. 1648– c. 1815 c. 1815–c. 1914
c. 1914–PRESENT
PERIOD 4:
c. 1914–PRESENT
c. 1450 – c. 1648 c. 1648 – c. 1815 c. 1815 –c. 1914
c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.1
European politics and diplomacy in the 20th century were dened by total war and its
consequences. World War I destroyed the balance of power, and the Treaty of Versailles,
which ended the war, created unstable conditions in which extremist ideologies emerged
that challenged liberal democracy and the postwar settlement. In Russia, hardships during
World War I gave rise to a revolution in 1917. The newly established, postwar democracies
in central and eastern Europe were too weak to provide stability either internally or in the
European state system, especially during the Great Depression of the 1930s. The League
of Nations, established after the war to employ collective security in the interests of peace,
could not manage the international tensions unleashed by World War I. The breakdown of
the settlement led to World War II, a conict even more violent than World War I. During
this second great war, the combatants engaged in wholesale destruction of cities, deliberate
attacks on civilians, and the systematic destruction of their enemies’ industrial complexes.
The Nazi government in Germany undertook the annihilation of Jews from the whole
continent (the Holocaust), as well as the murder of other targeted groups of Europeans. At the
end of the war, the economic and political devastation left a power vacuum that facilitated the
Cold War division of Europe.
During the 20th century, European imperialism, power, and sense of superiority reached
both its apogee and nadir. In the rst half of the century, nations extended their control and
inuence over most of the non-Western world, often through League of Nations’ mandates.
The idea of decolonization was born early in the century with the formation of movements
seeking rights for indigenous peoples; the material and moral destruction of World War II
made the idea a reality. After the war, regions colonized and dominated by European nations
moved from resistance to independence at diering rates and with diering consequences. Yet
even after decolonization, neocolonial dependency persisted, and millions of people migrated
to Europe as its economy recovered from the war. This immigration created large populations
of poor and isolated minorities, which occasionally rioted because of discrimination and
economic deprivation. As European governments tried to solve these problems, the apparently
permanent presence of the immigrants challenged old notions of European identity.
The uneasy alliance between Soviet Russia and the West during World War II gave way
after 1945 to a diplomatic, political, and economic confrontation between the democratic,
capitalist states of Western Europe allied with the United States and the communist bloc of
Eastern Europe dominated by the Soviet Union (also known as the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics, or USSR). During the ensuing confrontation between East and West, called the
Cold War, relations between the two blocs uctuated, but one consequence of the conict was
that European nations could not act autonomously in international aairs; the superpowers—
the Soviet Union and the United States—controlled international relations in Europe.
Nonetheless, the Cold War promoted political and economic unity in Western Europe, leading
to the establishment of a succession of ever-more comprehensive organizations for economic
cooperation. In 1957, six countries formed the Common Market, which soon began to expand
its membership to include other European states. The success of the Common Market inspired
Europeans to work toward a closer political and economic unity, including a European
executive body and Parliament. The founding of the European Union in 1991 at Maastricht
included the agreement to establish the euro as a common currency for qualifying member-
states. Following a series of largely peaceful revolutions in 1989, culminating in the collapse
of the Soviet Union in 1991, the formerly communist states of Eastern Europe moved toward
democracy and capitalist economies, and over time some of these states joined the European
c. 1450 – c. 1648 c. 1648 – c. 1815 c. 1815 –c. 1914
c. 1914–PRESENT
Union. One unforeseen consequence of the end of the Cold War was the re-emergence of
nationalist movements within states, which led to the Balkan wars in Yugoslavia and tensions
among the successor states of the Soviet Union as well as the rebirth of nationalist political
parties in Western Europe.
Key Concept 4.2
During World War I, states increased the degree and scope of their authority over their
economies, societies, and cultures. The demands of total war required the centralization of
power and the regimentation of the lives of citizens. During the war, governments sought to
control information and used propaganda to create stronger emotional ties to the nation and
its war eort. Ironically, these measures also produced distrust of traditional authorities. At
the end of the war, four empires dissolved—the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and
Russian empires—but the democratic nations that arose in their place lacked a tradition of
democratic politics and suered from weak economies and ethnic tensions. Even before the
end of the war, Russia experienced a revolution and civil war that created not only a new
state, the USSR, but also a new conception of government and socioeconomic order based on
communist ideals.
In Italy and Germany, charismatic leaders led fascist movements to power, seizing control of
the post–World War I governments. Fascism promised to solve economic problems through
state direction, although not ownership, of production. The movements also promised to
counteract the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles by rearming the military and by territorial
expansion. The eorts of fascist governments to revise the Treaty of Versailles led to the most
violent and destructive war in human history (World War II)—a conict between democracies,
temporarily allied with communist Russia, and fascist states. At the end of this conict,
fascist forces had been defeated, Europe was devastated, and the international diplomatic
situation developed into a conict between the capitalistic democracies and the centrally
directed communist states.
In the post–World War II period, states in both Eastern and Western Europe increased
their involvement in citizens’ economic lives. In the West this came through social welfare
programs and the expansion of education, while Eastern European nations were heavily
regulated in planned economies directed by the Soviet Union.
With the collapse of communism and the fall of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, the
Western European democracies celebrated the triumph of their political and economic
systems, and many of the former communist states sought admission into the European
Union and NATO. By the late 1990s, it became evident that the transition from communism to
capitalism and democracy was not as simple as it rst appeared to be, with Western Europe
experiencing diculties because of economic recession and the extension of social welfare
programs.
c. 1450 – c. 1648 c. 1648 – c. 1815 c. 1815 –c. 1914
c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.3
The major trend of 20th-century European thought and culture moved from an optimistic
view that modern science and technology could solve the problems of humankind to the
formation of eclectic and sometimes skeptical movements that doubted the possibility of
objective knowledge and of progress. Existentialism, postmodernism, and renewed religiosity
challenged the perceived dogmatism of positivist science. While European society became
increasingly secular, religion continued to play a role in the lives of many Europeans.
Religious denominations addressed and in some cases incorporated modern ideas, such
as the toleration of other religions, as well as scholarship—biblical and scientic—that
challenged the veracity of the Bible. The Christian churches made these accommodations as
immigration, particularly from Muslim countries, altered the religious landscape, challenging
Europe’s traditional Judeo-Christian identity.
After World War I, prewar trends in physics, psychology, and medical science accelerated. In
physics, new discoveries and theories challenged the certainties of a Newtonian universe by
introducing the ideas of relativity and uncertainty. Psychology, which became an independent
eld of inquiry at the end of the 19th century, advanced the claim that much human behavior
stemmed from irrational sources. By the mid-20th century, dramatic new medical technologies
prolonged life but created new social, moral, and economic problems. During World War II,
the potential dangers of scientic and technological achievements were demonstrated by
the industrialization of death in the Holocaust and by the vast destruction wrought by the
atomic bombs dropped on Japanese cities. It became clear that science could create weapons
powerful enough to end civilization.
The art world in the 20th century was dened by experimentation and subjectivity, which
asserted the independence of visual arts from realism. Futurism gloried the machine
age, Dadaism satirized traditional aesthetics, and Expressionism and Surrealism explored
the relationship between art and the emotions or the unconscious. In the interwar period,
the slogan “form follows function” expressed a desire by architects to render the space in
which we live and work more ecient. Throughout the century, American culture exerted an
increasing pull on both elite and popular culture in Europe.
Key Concept 4.4
The disruptions of two total wars, the reduction of barriers to migration within Europe
because of economic integration, globalization, and the arrival of new permanent residents
from outside Europe changed the everyday lives of Europeans in signicant ways. For the
rst time, more people lived in cities than in rural communities. Economic growth—although
interrupted by repeated wars and economic crises—generally increased standards of living,
leisure time (despite the growing number of two-career families), educational attainment,
and participation in mass cultural entertainments. The collapse of the birth rate to below
replacement levels enhanced the nancial well-being of individual families even as it reduced
the labor force. To support labor-force participation and encourage families, governments
instituted family policies supporting child care and created large-scale guest-worker
programs.
c. 1450 – c. 1648 c. 1648 – c. 1815 c. 1815 –c. 1914
c. 1914–PRESENT
Europe’s involvement in an increasingly global economy exposed its citizens to new
goods, ideas, and practices. Altogether, the disruptions of war and decolonization led to
new demographic patterns—a population increase followed by falling birth rates and the
immigration of non-Europeans—and to uncertainties about Europeans’ cultural identity. Even
before the collapse of communism and continuing afterward, a variety of groups on both the
left and right began campaigns of terror in the name of ethnic or national autonomy, or in
radical opposition to free-market ideology. Other groups worked within the democratic system
to achieve nationalist and xenophobic goals.
By the 1960s, the rapid industrialization of the previous century had created signicant
environmental problems. Environmentalists argued that the unfettered free-market economy
could lead Europe to ecological disaster, and they challenged the traditional economic and
political establishment with demands for sustainable development sensitive to environmental,
aesthetic, and moral constraints. At the same time, a generation that had not experienced
either economic depression or total war came of age and criticized existing institutions and
beliefs while calling for greater political and personal freedom. These demands culminated
with the 1968 youth revolts in Europe’s major cities and in challenges to institutional
authority structures, especially those of universities.
Feminist movements gained increased participation for women in politics, and before the end
of the century, several women became heads of government or state. Women’s organizations
and movements continued to advocate for other causes, such as equal pay, women’s health
care issues, and increased child care subsidies.
During the second half of the century, immigrants from around the globe streamed into
Europe, and by the new millennium Europeans found themselves living in multiethnic and
multireligious communities. Immigrants deed traditional expectations of integration and
assimilation and expressed social values dierent from 20th-century Europeans. Many
Europeans refused to consider the newcomers as true members of their society. In the early
21st century, Europeans continued to wrestle with issues of social justice and how to dene
European identity.
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
INT-5 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
w
orld shaped European culture,
politics, and society.
INT-6 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped non-European
culture, politics, and society.
SP-9 Explain how and why
changes in warfare aected
diplomacy, the European state
system, and the balance of
power.
SP-10 Explain how the concept
of a balance of power emerged,
developed, and eventually
became institutionalized over
time.
IS-3 Explain how and why
tensions have arisen between
the individual and society over
the course of European history.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
Key Concept 4.1 — Total war and political instability in the rst
half of the 20th century gave way to a polarized state order during
the Cold War and eventually to eorts at transnational union.
I. World War I, caused by a complex interaction of long- and short-term
factors, resulted in immense losses and disruptions for both victors and
vanquished.
A. A variety of factors—
including nationalism,
military plans, the alliance
system, and imperial
competition—turned a
regional dispute in the
Balkans into World War I.
B. New technologies confounded
traditional military strategies
and led to trench warfare and
massive troop losses.
Illustrative examples, new
technologies:
w
Machine gun
w
Barbed wire
Submarine
w
w
Airplane
w
Poison gas
w
Tank
C. The eects of military
stalemate, national
mobilization, and total war
led to protest and insurrection
in the belligerent nations and
eventually to revolutions that
changed the international
balance of power.
Illustrative examples, discontent and
revolution:
w
Mutinies in armies
w
Easter Rebellion in Ireland
w
Russian Revolution
D. The war in Europe quickly
spread to non-European
theaters, transforming the war
into a global conict.
Illustrative examples, non-European
theaters of conict:
w
Armenian Genocide
w
Arab revolt against the Turks
w
Japanese aggression in the Pacic
and on the Chinese mainland
E. The relationship of Europe to
the world shifted signicantly
with the globalization of the
conict, the emergence of
the United States as a world
power, and the overthrow of
European empires.
Illustrative examples, collapse of
European empires:
w
Mandate system
w
Creation of modern Turkey
w
Dissolution of Austro-Hungarian
Empire
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.1
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
148
Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 4.1 — Total war and political instability in the rst
half of the 20th century gave way to a polarized state order during
the Cold War and eventually to eorts at transnational union.
INT-5 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped European culture,
politics, and society.
SP-7 Explain how and why
European governments have
moved toward or reacted
against representative and
democratic principles and
practices.
SP-9 Explain how and why
changes in warfare aected
diplomacy, the European state
system, and the balance of
power.
SP-10 Explain how the concept
of a balance of power emerged,
developed, and eventually
became institutionalized over
time.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
II. The conicting goals of the peace negotiators in Paris pitted diplomatic
idealism against the desire to punish Germany, producing a settlement
that satised few.
A. Wilsonian idealism clashed
with postwar realities in
both the victorious and the
defeated states. Democratic
successor states emerged
from former empires and
eventually succumbed to
signicant political, economic,
and diplomatic crises.
Illustrative examples, democratic
successor states:
Poland
w
w
Czechoslovakia
w
Hungary
w
Yugoslavia
B. The League of Nations,
created to prevent future
wars, was weakened from the
outset by the nonparticipation
of major powers, including
the United States, Germany,
and the Soviet Union.
C. The Versailles settlement,
particularly its provisions
on the assignment of guilt
and reparations for the war,
hindered the German Weimar
Republic’s ability to establish
a stable and legitimate
political and economic
system.
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.1
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
149
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 4.1 — Total war and political instability in the rst
half of the 20th century gave way to a polarized state order during
the Cold War and eventually to eorts at transnational union.
SP-7 Explain how and why
European governments have
moved toward or reacted
against representative and
democratic principles and
practices.
SP-9 Explain how and why
changes in warfare aected
diplomacy, the European state
system, and the balance of
power.
SP-10 Explain how the concept
of a balance of power emerged,
developed, and eventually
became institutionalized over
time.
IS-3 Explain how and why
tensions have arisen between
the individual and society over
the course of European history.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
IS-5 Explain how identities
such as ethnicity, race, gender,
religious aliation, and class
have aected the individual’s
relationship to society from
1450 to the present.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
III. In the interwar period, fascism, extreme nationalism, racist ideologies,
and the failure of appeasement resulted in the catastrophe of World
War II, presenting a grave challenge to European civilization.
A. French and British fears
of another war, American
isolationism, and deep
distrust between Western
democratic, capitalist nations
and the authoritarian,
communist Soviet Union
allowed fascist states to rearm
and expand their territory.
Illustrative examples, fascist states’
expansion allowed by European
powers:
w
Remilitarization of the Rhineland
w
Italian invasion of Ethiopia
w
Annexation of Austria
Munich Agreement and its violation
w
Nazi–Soviet Non-Aggression Pact
w
B. Germany’s Blitzkrieg warfare
in Europe, combined with
Japan’s attacks in Asia and
the Pacic, brought the Axis
powers early victories.
Illustrative examples, Blitzkrieg:
w
Surrender of France
w
Polish campaign of 1939
w
Operation Barbarossa
C. American and British
industrial, scientic, and
technological power,
cooperative military eorts
under the strong leadership of
individuals such as Winston
Churchill, the resistance
of civilians, and the all-out
military commitment of the
USSR contributed critically to
the Allied victories.
D. Fueled by racism and anti-
Semitism, Nazi Germany—
with the cooperation of
some of the other Axis
powers and collaborationist
governments—sought to
establish a “new racial order”
in Europe, which culminated
with the Holocaust.
Illustrative Examples, Nazi
establishment of a new racial order:
w
Nuremberg Laws
w
Wannsee Conference
w
Auschwitz and other death camps
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.1
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
150
Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 4.1 — Total war and political instability in the rst
half of the 20th century gave way to a polarized state order during
the Cold War and eventually to eorts at transnational union.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
III. In the interwar period, fascism, extreme nationalism, racist ideologies,
and the failure of appeasement resulted in the catastrophe of World
War II, presenting a grave challenge to European civilization.
(CONTINUED)
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.1
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
Return to Table of Contents
© 2017 The College Board
AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
151
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 4.1 — Total war and political instability in the rst
half of the 20th century gave way to a polarized state order during
the Cold War and eventually to eorts at transnational union.
INT-5 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped European culture,
politics, and society.
INT-6 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped non-European
culture, politics, and society.
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a result of
the development of capitalism.
SP-2 Explain how and why
the political forms of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-3 Explain how and why the
economic roles of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-9 Explain how and why
changes in warfare aected
diplomacy, the European state
system, and the balance of
power.
SP-10 Explain how the concept
of a balance of power emerged,
developed, and eventually
became institutionalized over
time.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
IV. As World War II ended, a Cold War between the liberal democratic West
and the communist East began, lasting nearly half a century.
A. Despite eorts to maintain
international cooperation
through the newly created
United Nations, deep-
seated tensions between
the USSR and the West led
to the division of Europe,
which was referred to in the
West as the Iron Curtain.
B. The Cold War played out on
a global stage and involved
propaganda campaigns;
covert actions; limited “hot
wars” in Asia, Africa, Latin
America, and the Caribbean;
and an arms race, with the
threat of a nuclear war.
Illustrative Examples, hot wars
outside of Europe in which the
United States and the USSR
supported opposite sides:
w
Korean War
w
Vietnam War
w
Yom Kippur War
w
Afghanistan War
C. The United States exerted
a strong military, political,
and economic inuence in
Western Europe, leading
to the creation of world
monetary and trade systems
and geopolitical alliances
such as NATO.
Illustrative examples, the world
monetary and trade system:
w
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
w
World Bank
w
General Agreement on Taris and
Trade (GATT)
w
World Trade Organization (WTO)
D. Countries east of the Iron
Curtain came under the
military, political, and
economic domination of
the Soviet Union within the
Council for Mutual Economic
Assistance (COMECON) and
the Warsaw Pact.
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.1
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
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© 2017 The College Board
AP European History Course and Exam Description
152
Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 4.1 — Total war and political instability in the rst
half of the 20th century gave way to a polarized state order during
the Cold War and eventually to eorts at transnational union.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
IV. As World War II ended, a Cold War between the liberal democratic West
and the communist East began, lasting nearly half a century.
(CONTINUED)
E. The collapse of the USSR
in 1991 ended the Cold War
and led to the establishment
of capitalist economies
throughout Eastern Europe.
Germany was reunited, the
Czechs and the Slovaks
parted, Yugoslavia dissolved,
and the European Union was
enlarged through admission
of former Eastern bloc
countries.
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.1
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
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© 2017 The College Board
AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
153
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 4.1 — Total war and political instability in the rst
half of the 20th century gave way to a polarized state order during
the Cold War and eventually to eorts at transnational union.
SP-6 Explain how religious belief
aected politics and how the
principle of religious toleration
emerged and changed over time.
IS-3 Explain how and why
tensions have arisen between
the individual and society over
the course of European history.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
IS-5 Explain how identities
such as ethnicity, race, gender,
religious aliation, and class
have aected the individual’s
relationship to society from
1450 to the present.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
V. Nationalist and separatist movements, along with ethnic conict and
ethnic cleansing, periodically disrupted the post–World War II peace.
Illustrative examples, nationalist
violence:
w
Ireland
w
Chechnya
Illustrative examples, separatist
movements:
w
Basque (ETA)
w
Flemish
Illustrative examples, ethnic
cleansing:
w
Bosnian Muslims
w
Albanian Muslims of Kosovo
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.1
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
154
Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 4.1 — Total war and political instability in the rst
half of the 20th century gave way to a polarized state order during
the Cold War and eventually to eorts at transnational union.
INT-1 Describe how economic,
religious, cultural, and political
motives inuenced European
exploration and colonization of
overseas territories.
INT-3 Explain how dierent
motives for promoting European
exploration and colonization
of overseas territories changed
from 1450 to the present.
INT-5 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped European culture,
politics, and society.
INT-6 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped non-European
culture, politics, and society.
SP-7 Explain how and why
European governments have
moved toward or reacted
against representative and
democratic principles and
practices.
SP-9 Explain how and why
changes in warfare aected
diplomacy, the European state
system, and the balance of
power.
SP-10 Explain how the concept
of a balance of power emerged,
developed, and eventually
became institutionalized over
time.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
VI. The process of decolonization occurred over the course of the century
with varying degrees of cooperation, interference, or resistance from
European imperialist states.
A. At the end of World War I,
President Woodrow Wilson’s
principle of national self-
determination raised
expectations in the non-
European world for new
policies and freedoms.
B. The League of Nations
distributed former German
and Ottoman possessions
to France and Great Britain
through the mandate system,
thereby altering the imperial
balance of power and creating
a strategic interest in the
Middle East and its oil.
Illustrative examples, mandate
territories:
w
Lebanon and Syria
w
Iraq
w
Palestine
C. Despite indigenous
nationalist movements,
independence for many
African and Asian territories
was delayed until the mid-
and even late 20th century
by the imperial powers’
reluctance to relinquish
control, threats of interference
from other nations, unstable
economic and political
systems, and Cold War
strategic alignments.
Illustrative examples, indigenous
nationalist movements:
w
Indian National Congress
w
Algeria’s National Liberation
Front (FLN)
w
Ho Chi Minh’s Viet Minh
w
Sukarno and Indonesian
nationalism
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.1
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
Return to Table of Contents
© 2017 The College Board
AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
155
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 4.1 — Total war and political instability in the rst
half of the 20th century gave way to a polarized state order during
the Cold War and eventually to eorts at transnational union.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
VI. The process of decolonization occurred over the course of the century
with varying degrees of cooperation, interference, or resistance from
European imperialist states.
(CONTINUED)
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.1
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
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Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a r
esult of
the development of capitalism.
PP-4 Explain the causes and
consequences of economic
inequality.
PP-5 Explain how individuals,
groups, and the state responded
to economic developments over
time.
SP-1 Describe the political
forms and economic roles of
European governments from
1450 to the present.
SP-2 Explain how and why
the political forms of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-3 Explain how and why the
economic roles of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-7 Explain how and why
European governments have
moved toward or reacted
against representative and
democratic principles and
practices.
IS-2 Explain how family
life, relations between social
groups, and ideas about gender
have changed over time.
IS-3 Explain how and why
tensions have arisen between
the individual and society over
the course of European history.
Key Concept 4.2 — The stresses of economic collapse and total war
engendered internal conicts within European states and created
conicting conceptions of the relationship between the individual
and the state, as demonstrated in the ideological battle between and
among democracy, communism, and fascism.
I. The Russian Revolution created a regime based on Marxist–Leninist
theory.
A. In Russia, World War I
exacerbated long-term
problems of political
stagnation, social inequality,
incomplete industrialization,
and food and land
distribution, all while creating
support for revolutionary
change.
Illustrative examples, revolutionary
change in Russia:
w
February/March Revolution
w
Petrograd Soviet
B. Military and worker
insurrections, aided by the
revived Soviets, undermined
the Provisional Government
and set the stage for Lenin’s
long-planned Bolshevik
Revolution and establishment
of a communist state.
C. The Bolshevik takeover
prompted a protracted civil
war between communist
forces and their opponents,
who were aided by foreign
powers.
D. In order to improve economic
performance, Lenin
compromised communist
principles and employed
some free-market principles
under the New Economic
Policy. After Lenin’s death,
Stalin undertook a centralized
program of rapid economic
modernization, often with
severe repercussions for the
population.
Illustrative examples, the
Soviet Union’s rapid economic
modernization:
w
Collectivization
w
Five Year Plan
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.2
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
Return to Table of Contents
© 2017 The College Board
AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
157
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 4.2 — The stresses of economic collapse and total war
engendered internal conicts within European states and created
conicting conceptions of the relationship between the individual
and the state, as demonstrated in the ideological battle between and
among democracy, communism, and fascism.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
I. The Russian Revolution created a regime based on Marxist–Leninist
theory.
(CONTINUED)
E. Stalin’s economic
modernization of the Soviet
Union came at a high price,
including the liquidation
of the kulaks (the land-
owning peasantry) and other
perceived enemies of the
state, devastating famine
in the Ukraine, purges
of political rivals, and,
ultimately, the creation of an
oppressive political system.
Illustrative examples, the Soviet
Union’s oppressive political system:
w
Great purges
w
Gulags
w
Secret police
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.2
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
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© 2017 The College Board
AP European History Course and Exam Description
158
Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 4.2 — The stresses of economic collapse and total war
engendered internal conicts within European states and created
conicting conceptions of the relationship between the individual
and the state, as demonstrated in the ideological battle between and
among democracy, communism, and fascism.
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a result of
the development of capitalism.
PP-4 Explain the causes and
consequences of economic
inequality.
OS-2 Explain how political
revolution and war altered the
role of the church in political
and intellectual life, as well as
how religious authorities and
intellectuals responded to these
changes.
OS-4 Evaluate the extent
to which new theories of
government and political
ideologies continued to
incorporate traditional
explanations based on religious
beliefs.
OS-6 Explain how individualism,
subjectivity, and emotion came
to be considered valid sources of
knowledge over time.
OS-7 Explain how the values
of individualism, subjectivity,
and emotion were expressed in
dierent political ideologies and
cultural and artistic forms.
SP-7 Explain how and why
European governments have
moved toward or reacted against
representative and democratic
principles and practices.
SP-9 Explain how and why
changes in warfare aected
diplomacy, the European state
system, and the balance of
power.
II. The ideology of fascism, with roots in the pre–World War I era,
gained popularity in an environment of postwar bitterness, the rise
of communism, uncertain transitions to democracy, and economic
instability.
A. Fascist dictatorships used
modern technology and
propaganda that rejected
democratic institutions,
promoted charismatic
leaders, and gloried war
and nationalism to attract the
disillusioned.
Illustrative examples, fascist
propaganda:
w
Radio
w
Joseph Goebbels
w
Leni Riefenstahl
w
Architecture
w
Cult of personality
B. Mussolini and Hitler rose to
power by exploiting postwar
bitterness and economic
instability, using terror and
manipulating the edgling
and unpopular democracies
in their countries.
C. Franco’s alliance with Italian
and German fascists in the
Spanish Civil War—in which
the Western democracies did
not intervene—represented
a testing ground for World
War II and resulted in
authoritarian rule in Spain
from 1936 to the mid-1970s.
D. After failures to establish
functioning democracies,
authoritarian dictatorships
took power in central and
eastern Europe during the
interwar period.
Illustrative examples, authoritarian
dictatorship in central and eastern
Europe:
Poland
w
w
Hungary
w
Romania
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.2
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
Return to Table of Contents
© 2017 The College Board
AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
159
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 4.2 — The stresses of economic collapse and total war
engendered internal conicts within European states and created
conicting conceptions of the relationship between the individual
and the state, as demonstrated in the ideological battle between and
among democracy, communism, and fascism.
SP-10 Explain how the concept
of a balance of power emerged,
developed, and eventually
became institutionalized over
time.
IS-3 Explain how and why
tensions have arisen between
the individual and society over
the course of European history.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
II. The ideology of fascism, with roots in the pre–World War I era,
gained popularity in an environment of postwar bitterness, the rise
of communism, uncertain transitions to democracy, and economic
instability.
(CONTINUED)
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.2
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
Return to Table of Contents
© 2017 The College Board
AP European History Course and Exam Description
160
Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 4.2 — The stresses of economic collapse and total war
engendered internal conicts within European states and created
conicting conceptions of the relationship between the individual
and the state, as demonstrated in the ideological battle between and
among democracy, communism, and fascism.
INT-5 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped European culture,
politics, and society.
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a result of
the development of capitalism.
PP-4 Explain the causes and
consequences of economic
inequality.
PP-5 Explain how individuals,
groups, and the state responded
to economic developments over
time.
SP-1 Describe the political
forms and economic roles of
European governments from
1450 to the present.
SP-2 Explain how and why
the political forms of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-3 Explain how and why the
economic roles of European
governments have changed
over time.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
III. The Great Depression, caused by weaknesses in international trade
and monetary theories and practices, undermined Western European
democracies and fomented radical political responses throughout Europe.
A. World War I debt,
nationalistic tari policies,
overproduction, depreciated
currencies, disrupted trade
patterns, and speculation
created weaknesses in
economies worldwide.
B. Dependence on post–World
War I American investment
capital led to nancial
collapse when, following the
1929 stock market crash, the
United States cut o capital
ows to Europe.
C. Despite attempts to
rethink economic theories
and policies and forge
political alliances, Western
democracies failed to
overcome the Great
Depression and were
weakened by extremist
movements.
Illustrative examples, new economic
theories and policies:
w
Keynesianism in Britain
w
Cooperative social action in
Scandinavia
w
Popular Front policies in France
Illustrative examples, political
alliance:
w
National government in Britain
w
Popular Fronts in France and Spain
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.2
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
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Concept Outline
161
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 4.2 — The stresses of economic collapse and total war
engendered internal conicts within European states and created
conicting conceptions of the relationship between the individual
and the state, as demonstrated in the ideological battle between and
among democracy, communism, and fascism.
INT-5 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped European culture,
politics, and society.
PP-1 Explain how capitalism
has developed as an economic
system.
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a result of
the development of capitalism.
PP-4 Explain the causes and
consequences of economic
inequality.
PP-5 Explain how individuals,
groups, and the state responded
to economic developments over
time.
SP-1 Describe the political
forms and economic roles of
European governments from
1450 to the present.
SP-2 Explain how and why
the political forms of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-3 Explain how and why the
economic roles of European
governments have changed
over time.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
IV. Postwar economic growth supported an increase in welfare benets;
however, subsequent economic stagnation led to criticism and limitation
of the welfare state.
A. Marshall Plan funds from the
United States nanced an
extensive reconstruction of
industry and infrastructure
and stimulated an extended
period of growth in Western
and Central Europe, often
referred to as an “economic
miracle,” which increased
the economic and cultural
importance of consumerism.
B. The expansion of cradle-to-
grave social welfare programs
in the aftermath of World
War II, accompanied by high
taxes, became a contentious
domestic political issue as the
budgets of European nations
came under pressure in the
late 20th century.
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.2
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
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Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 4.2 — The stresses of economic collapse and total war
engendered internal conicts within European states and created
conicting conceptions of the relationship between the individual
and the state, as demonstrated in the ideological battle between and
among democracy, communism, and fascism.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
IV. Postwar economic growth supported an increase in welfare benets;
however, subsequent economic stagnation led to criticism and limitation
of the welfare state.
(CONTINUED)
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.2
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
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Concept Outline
163
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 4.2 — The stresses of economic collapse and total war
engendered internal conicts within European states and created
conicting conceptions of the relationship between the individual
and the state, as demonstrated in the ideological battle between and
among democracy, communism, and fascism.
PP-2 Explain the impact
of the development of new
technologies and industries
on economic growth and the
standard of living in dierent
geographic regions.
PP-5 Explain how individuals,
groups, and the state responded
to economic developments over
time.
SP-1 Describe the political
forms and economic roles of
European governments from
1450 to the present.
SP-2 Explain how and why
the political forms of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-3 Explain how and why the
economic roles of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-7 Explain how and why
European governments have
moved toward or reacted
against representative and
democratic principles and
practices.
SP-9 Explain how and why
changes in warfare aected
diplomacy, the European state
system, and the balance of
power.
SP-10 Explain how the concept
of a balance of power emerged,
developed, and eventually
became institutionalized over
time.
V. Eastern European nations were bound by their relationships with the
Soviet Union, which oscillated between repression and limited reform,
until the collapse of communist governments in Eastern Europe and the
fall of the Soviet Union.
A. Central and Eastern European
nations within the Soviet bloc
followed an economic model
based on central planning,
extensive social welfare,
and specialized production
among bloc members. This
brought with it the restriction
of individual rights and
freedoms, suppression of
dissent, and constraint of
emigration for the various
populations within the Soviet
bloc.
B. After 1956, Soviet leader
Nikita Khrushchev’s de-
Stalinization policies failed
to meet their economic goals
within the Soviet Union;
combined with reactions
to existing limitations
on individual rights, this
prompted revolts in Eastern
Europe, which ended with a
reimposition of Soviet rule
and repressive totalitarian
regimes.
Illustrative examples, revolts against
Soviet control:
w
Prague Spring
w
Hungarian Revolt
C. Following a long period of
economic stagnation, Mikhail
Gorbachev’s internal reforms
of perestroika and glasnost,
designed to make the Soviet
system more exible, failed to
stave o the collapse of the
Soviet Union and the end of
its hegemonic control over
Eastern and Central European
satellites.
Illustrative examples, collapse of
Soviet Union and satellites:
w
Fall of the Berlin Wall
w
Polish elections 1989
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.2
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
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Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 4.2 — The stresses of economic collapse and total war
engendered internal conicts within European states and created
conicting conceptions of the relationship between the individual
and the state, as demonstrated in the ideological battle between and
among democracy, communism, and fascism.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were created,
developed, and challenged.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
V. Eastern European nations were bound by their relationships with the
Soviet Union, which oscillated between repression and limited reform,
until the collapse of communist governments in Eastern Europe and the
fall of the Soviet Union.
(CONTINUED)
D. The rise of new nationalisms
in Central and Eastern Europe
brought peaceful revolution
in most countries but resulted
in war and genocide in the
Balkans and instability in
some former Soviet republics.
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.2
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
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Concept Outline
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Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed ov
er time as a result of
the development of capitalism.
PP-4 Explain the causes and
consequences of economic
inequality.
PP-5 Explain how individuals,
groups, and the state responded
to economic developments over
time.
OS-5 Explain the emergence,
spread, and questioning of
scientic, technological,
and positivist approaches to
addressing social problems.
OS-6 Explain how
individualism, subjectivity, and
emotion came to be considered
valid sources of knowledge over
time.
OS-7 Explain how the values
of individualism, subjectivity,
and emotion were expressed in
dierent political ideologies and
cultural and artistic forms.
IS-3 Explain how and why
tensions have arisen between
the individual and society over
the course of European history.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
Key Concept 4.3 — During the 20th century, diverse intellectual
and cultural movements questioned the existence of objective
knowledge, the ability of reason to arrive at truth, and the role of
religion in determining moral standards.
I. The widely held belief in progress characteristic of much of 19th-century
thought began to break down before World War I; the experience of war
intensied a sense of anxiety that permeated many facets of thought
and culture, giving way by the century’s end to a plurality of intellectual
frameworks.
A. When World War I began,
Europeans were generally
condent in the ability of
science and technology
to address human needs
and problems despite the
uncertainty created by the
new scientic theories and
psychology.
B. The eects of world war
and economic depression
undermined this condence
in science and human
reason, giving impetus to
existentialism and producing
postmodernism in the post-
1945 period.
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.3
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
166
Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 4.3 — During the 20th century, diverse intellectual
and cultural movements questioned the existence of objective
knowledge, the ability of reason to arrive at truth, and the role of
religion in determining moral standards.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
I. The widely held belief in progress characteristic of much of 19th-century
thought began to break down before World War I; the experience of war
intensied a sense of anxiety that permeated many facets of thought
and culture, giving way by the century’s end to a plurality of intellectual
frameworks.
(CONTINUED)
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.3
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
167
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 4.3 — During the 20th century, diverse intellectual
and cultural movements questioned the existence of objective
knowledge, the ability of reason to arrive at truth, and the role of
religion in determining moral standards.
PP-2 Explain the impact
of the development of new
technologies and industries
on economic growth and the
standard of living in dierent
geographic regions.
OS-5 Explain the emergence,
spread, and questioning of
scientic, technological,
and positivist approaches to
addressing social problems.
SP-4 Describe the emergence
and development of political
theories and practices
that stressed the political
importance and rights of the
individual.
SP-9 Explain how and why
changes in warfare aected
diplomacy, the European state
system, and the balance of
power.
II. Science and technology yielded impressive material benets but
also caused immense destruction and posed challenges to objective
knowledge.
A. The challenge to the
certainties of the Newtonian
universe in physics opened
the door to uncertainty in
other elds by undermining
faith in objective knowledge
while also providing the
knowledge necessary for
the development of nuclear
weapons and power.
Illustrative Examples, physicists:
w
Albert Einstein
w
Werner Heisenberg
w
Erwin Schrödinger
w
Enrico Fermi
w
Niels Bohr
B. Medical theories and
technologies extended
life but posed social and
moral questions that eluded
consensus and crossed
religious, political, and
philosophical perspectives.
Illustrative examples, medical
theories and technologies:
w
Eugenics
w
Birth control
w
Abortion
w
Fertility treatments
w
Genetic engineering
C. Military technologies made
possible industrialized
warfare, genocide, nuclear
proliferation, and the risk of
global nuclear war.
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.3
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
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Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 4.3 — During the 20th century, diverse intellectual
and cultural movements questioned the existence of objective
knowledge, the ability of reason to arrive at truth, and the role of
religion in determining moral standards.
INT-5 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped European culture,
politics, and society.
INT-6 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped non-European
culture, politics, and society.
OS-2 Explain how political
revolution and war altered the
role of the church in political
and intellectual life, as well as
how religious authorities and
intellectuals responded to these
changes.
OS-8 Evaluate the extent to
which, over time, religion
shifted from a matter of public
concern to one of private belief.
SP-5 Explain how the
relationship between states and
ecclesiastical authority changed
over time.
SP-6 Explain how religious
belief aected politics and
how the principle of religious
toleration emerged and changed
over time.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
III. Organized religion continued to play a role in European social and
cultural life despite the challenges of military and ideological conict,
modern secularism, and rapid social changes.
A. The challenges of
totalitarianism and
communism in Central and
Eastern Europe brought
mixed responses from the
Christian churches.
Illustrative examples, Christian
responses to totalitarianism:
w
Dietrich Bonhoeer
w
Martin Niemöller
w
Pope John Paul II
w
Solidarity
B. Reform in the Catholic
Church found expression in
the Second Vatican Council,
which redened the church’s
doctrine and practices
and started to redene its
relations with other religious
communities.
C. Increased immigration into
Europe altered Europe’s
religious makeup, causing
debate and conict over the
role of religion in social and
political life.
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.3
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
169
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 4.3 — During the 20th century, diverse intellectual
and cultural movements questioned the existence of objective
knowledge, the ability of reason to arrive at truth, and the role of
religion in determining moral standards.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
III. Organized religion continued to play a role in European social and
cultural life despite the challenges of military and ideological conict,
modern secularism, and rapid social changes.
(CONTINUED)
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.3
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
170
Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 4.3 — During the 20th century, diverse intellectual
and cultural movements questioned the existence of objective
knowledge, the ability of reason to arrive at truth, and the role of
religion in determining moral standards.
INT-5 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped European culture,
politics, and society.
PP-1 Explain how capitalism
has developed as an economic
system.
PP-2 Explain the impact
of the development of new
technologies and industries
on economic growth and the
standard of living in dierent
geographic regions.
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a result of
the development of capitalism.
OS-6 Explain how
individualism, subjectivity, and
emotion came to be considered
valid sources of knowledge over
time.
OS-7 Explain how the values
of individualism, subjectivity,
and emotion were expressed in
dierent political ideologies and
cultural and artistic forms.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
IV. During the 20th century, the arts were dened by experimentation, self-
expression, subjectivity, and the increasing inuence of the United States
in both elite and popular culture.
A. New movements in the visual
arts, architecture, and music
radically shifted existing
aesthetic standards, explored
subconscious and subjective
states, and satirized Western
society and its values.
Illustrative examples, new
movements in the visual arts:
w
Cubism
w
Futurism
w
Dadaism
w
Surrealism
w
Abstract Expressionism
w
Pop Art
Illustrative examples, new
architectural movements:
w
Bauhaus
w
Modernism
w
Postmodernism
Illustrative examples, new
movements in music:
w
Igor Stravinsky
w
Arnold Schoenberg
Richard Strauss
w
B. Throughout the century,
a number of writers
challenged traditional literary
conventions, questioned
Western values, and
addressed controversial social
and political issues.
Illustrative examples, writers:
w
Franz Kafka
w
James Joyce
w
Erich Maria Remarque
w
Virginia Woolf
Jean-Paul Sartre
w
C. Increased imports of
United States technology
and popular culture after
World War II generated both
enthusiasm and criticism.
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.3
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
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Concept Outline
171
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
INT-5 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
w
orld shaped European culture,
politics, and society.
PP-1 Explain how capitalism
has developed as an economic
system.
PP-2 Explain the impact
of the development of new
technologies and industries
on economic growth and the
standard of living in dierent
geographic regions.
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a result of
the development of capitalism.
IS-1 Explain the role of
technology in forming and
transforming European society.
IS-3 Explain how and why
tensions have arisen between
the individual and society over
the course of European history.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
IS-5 Explain how identities
such as ethnicity, race, gender,
religious aliation, and class
have aected the individual’s
relationship to society from
1450 to the present.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
Key Concept 4.4 — Demographic changes, economic growth,
total war, disruptions of traditional social patterns, and competing
denitions of freedom and justice altered the experiences of
everyday life.
I. The 20th century was characterized by large-scale suering brought on
by warfare and genocide, but also by tremendous improvements in the
standard of living.
A. World War I created a
“lost generation,” fostered
disillusionment and cynicism,
transformed the lives of
women, and democratized
societies.
B. World War II decimated
a generation of Russian
and German men; virtually
destroyed European
Jewry; resulted in the
murder of millions in other
groups targeted by the
Nazis including Roma,
homosexuals, people with
disabilities, and others; forced
large-scale migrations; and
undermined prewar class
hierarchies.
C. Mass production, new food
technologies, and industrial
eciency increased
disposable income and
created a consumer culture
in which greater domestic
comforts such as electricity,
indoor plumbing, plastics,
and synthetic bers became
available.
D. New communication and
transportation technologies
multiplied the connections
across space and time,
transforming daily life
and contributing to the
proliferation of ideas and to
globalization.
Illustrative examples, new
communication technologies:
w
Telephone
w
Radio
w
Television
w
Computer
w
Cell phone
w
Internet
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.4
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
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Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 4.4 — Demographic changes, economic growth,
total war, disruptions of traditional social patterns, and competing
denitions of freedom and justice altered the experiences of
everyday life.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
I. The 20th century was characterized by large-scale suering brought on
by warfare and genocide, but also by tremendous improvements in the
standard of living.
(CONTINUED)
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.4
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
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Concept Outline
173
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 4.4 — Demographic changes, economic growth,
total war, disruptions of traditional social patterns, and competing
denitions of freedom and justice altered the experiences of
everyday life.
PP-2 Explain the impact
of the development of new
technologies and industries
on economic growth and the
standard of living in dierent
geographic regions.
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a result of
the development of capitalism.
OS-3 Explain how traditional
views of authority and forms of
knowledge coexisted with the
scientic method and reason.
SP-1 Describe the political
forms and economic roles of
European governments from
1450 to the present.
SP-4 Describe the emergence
and development of political
theories and practices
that stressed the political
importance and rights of the
individual.
SP-7 Explain how and why
European governments have
moved toward or reacted
against representative and
democratic principles and
practices.
SP-8 Explain how and why
civic institutions developed
apart from governments and the
impact they had on European
states over time.
IS-2 Explain how family
life, relations between social
groups, and ideas about gender
have changed over time.
II. The lives of women were dened by family and work responsibilities,
economic changes, and feminism.
A. During the world wars,
women became increasingly
involved in military and
political mobilization as well
as in economic production.
B. In Western Europe through
the eorts of feminists, and in
Eastern Europe and the Soviet
Union through government
policy, women nally gained
the vote, greater educational
opportunities, and access to
professional careers, even
while continuing to face
social inequalities.
Illustrative examples, feminists and
feminism:
w
Simone de Beauvoir
w
Second-wave feminism
C. With economic recovery after
World War II, the birth rate
increased dramatically (the
baby boom), often promoted
by government policies.
Illustrative examples, government
policies promoting population
growth:
w
Neonatalism
Subsidies for large families
w
w
Child-care facilities
D. New modes of marriage,
partnership, motherhood,
divorce, and reproduction
gave women more options in
their personal lives.
Illustrative examples, new modes of
managing reproduction:
w
The pill
w
Scientic means of fertilization
E. Women attained high political
oce and increased their
representation in legislative
bodies in many nations.
Illustrative examples, women who
attained high political oce:
w
Margaret Thatcher of Great Britain
w
Mary Robinson of Ireland
w
Edith Cresson of France
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.4
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
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Concept Outline
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 4.4 — Demographic changes, economic growth,
total war, disruptions of traditional social patterns, and competing
denitions of freedom and justice altered the experiences of
everyday life.
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
II. The lives
economic
(CONTINUED
IS-5 Explain how identities
such as ethnicity, race, gender,
religious aliation, and class
have aected the individual’s
relationship to society from
1450 to the present.
of women were dened by family and work responsibilities,
changes, and feminism.
)
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.4
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
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Concept Outline
175
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 4.4 — Demographic changes, economic growth,
total war, disruptions of traditional social patterns, and competing
denitions of freedom and justice altered the experiences of
everyday life.
INT-5 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped European culture,
politics, and society.
INT-6 Explain how encounters
between Europe and the wider
world shaped non-European
culture, politics, and society.
PP-2 Explain the impact
of the development of new
technologies and industries
on economic growth and the
standard of living in dierent
geographic regions.
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a result of
the development of capitalism.
PP-5 Explain how individuals,
groups, and the state responded
to economic developments over
time.
SP-1 Describe the political
forms and economic roles of
European governments from
1450 to the present.
SP-4 Describe the emergence
and development of political
theories and practices
that stressed the political
importance and rights of the
individual.
SP-7 Explain how and why
European governments have
moved toward or reacted
against representative and
democratic principles and
practices.
III. New voices gained prominence in political, intellectual, and social
discourse.
A. Green parties in Western
and Central Europe
challenged consumerism,
urged sustainable
development, and, by the
late 20th century, cautioned
against globalization.
B. Various movements, including
women’s movements, political
and social movements, gay
and lesbian movements, and
others, worked for expanded
civil rights, in some cases
obtaining the goals they
sought, and in others facing
strong opposition.
C. Intellectuals and youth
reacted against perceived
bourgeois materialism and
decadence, most signicantly
with the revolts of 1968.
D. Because of the economic
growth of the 1950s and
1960s, migrant workers
from southern Europe, Asia,
and Africa immigrated to
Western and Central Europe;
however, after the economic
downturn of the 1970s, these
workers and their families
often became targets of anti-
immigrant agitation and
extreme nationalist political
parties.
Illustrative examples, anti-
immigration, conservative parties:
w
French National Front
w
Austrian Freedom Party
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.4
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
176
Concept Outline
(Focus of Exam Questions) everyday life.
SP-8 Explain how and why
civic institutions developed
apart from governments and the
impact they had on European
states over time.
SP-10 Explain how the concept
of a balance of power emerged,
developed, and eventually
became institutionalized over
time.
IS-2 Explain how family
life, relations between social
groups, and ideas about gender
have changed over time.
IS-3 Explain how and why
tensions have arisen between
the individual and society over
the course of European history.
III. New voices gained promi
discourse.
(CONTINUED)
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
Key Concept 4.4 — Demographic changes, economic growth,
total war, disruptions of traditional social patterns, and competing
denitions of freedom and justice altered the experiences of
IS-4 Explain how and why the
status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.
IS-5 Explain how identities
such as ethnicity, race, gender,
religious aliation, and class
have aected the individual’s
relationship to society from
1450 to the present.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other social
identities coexisted with national
identities and occasionally
challenged the notion of a unied
nation or empire.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
nence in political, intellectual, and social
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.4
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
Concept Outline
177
Related Thematic
Learning Objectives
(Focus of Exam Questions)
Key Concept 4.4 — Demographic changes, economic growth,
total war, disruptions of traditional social patterns, and competing
denitions of freedom and justice altered the experiences of
everyday life.
PP-3 Explain how society has
changed over time as a result of
the development of capitalism.
PP-5 Explain how individuals,
groups, and the state responded
to economic developments over
time.
SP-2 Explain how and why
the political forms of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-3 Explain how and why the
economic roles of European
governments have changed
over time.
SP-10 Explain how the concept
of a balance of power emerged,
developed, and eventually
became institutionalized over
time.
NI-2 Explain how and why
cultural, regional, and other
social identities coexisted
with national identities and
occasionally challenged the
notion of a unied nation or
empire.
NI-3 Explain how and why
political, economic, and
religious developments
challenged or reinforced the
idea of a unied Europe in the
period 1450 to the present.
NI-4 Explain how overseas
expansion, warfare, and
international diplomacy aected
Europeans’ identication of
themselves as members of
national, cultural, regional, or
transnational groups.
IV. European states began to set aside nationalist rivalries in favor of
economic and political integration, forming a series of transnational unions
that grew in size and scope over the second half of the 20th century.
A. As the economic alliance
known as the European
Coal and Steel Community,
envisioned as a means to spur
postwar economic recovery,
developed into the European
Economic Community (EEC
or Common Market) and the
European Union (EU), Europe
experienced increasing
economic and political
integration and eorts to
establish a shared European
identity.
B. EU member nations continue
to balance questions of
national sovereignty with
the responsibilities of
membership in an economic
and political union.
Illustrative examples, challenges to
national sovereignty within the EU:
w
The euro
w
European Parliament
w
Issue of remaining in EU (e.g.
Britain’s “Brexit”)
w
Free movement across borders
Period 4: c. 1914–PRESENT
Key Concept 4.4
TEACHER-SELECTED EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL
INDIVIDUALS, EVENTS, TOPICS, OR SOURCES
FOR STUDENTS TO EXAMINE IN DEPTH
▲
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
178
Concept Outline
AP European History
Instructional Approaches
The AP European History course helps students develop a conceptual understanding of
European history from c. 1450 to the present, while enhancing students’ ability to think
historically by developing prociency with the AP history disciplinary practices and reasoning
skills. This section on instructional approaches provides teachers with recommendations
and examples of how to implement the course framework in practical ways in the classroom,
addressing the following topics:
n
Organizational approaches
n
Selecting and using course materials
n
Developing the disciplinary practices and reasoning skills
n
Increasing depth and managing breadth through instructional choices
n
Strategies for instruction
Organizational Approaches
The course framework oers two dierent ways of approaching the study of European
history: chronological, through the concept outline, and thematic, through the themes and
corresponding learning objectives. While teachers typically use chronology as the main
organizational structure for the course, the course framework is designed to help teachers
and students make thematic connections across the material. Many AP European History
classrooms approach the material chronologically while fostering thematic connections
throughout the course and within every unit of instruction.
Using the Key Concepts
The key concepts act as important framing devices in teaching the course framework,
giving shape and structure to content that students otherwise might nd disconnected. In
considering approaches, teachers should keep in mind that the key concepts need not be
addressed in the order in which they appear in the framework.
Additionally, it is common, and even expected, that instruction in a particular unit will include
historical developments and processes outlined in multiple key concepts. For example, in
teaching the interwar and World War II period, teachers would likely want to draw upon all
four key concepts from Period 4, as each one touches on dierent aspects of European history
and society from the 1920s through the 1940s.
Teachers may nd it useful to teach key concepts from dierent time periods within the same
lesson plan sequence or unit of instruction. For example, teachers may decide after discussing
the price revolution (Key Concept 1.4), they want to cover the emergence and impact of
commercial agriculture by combining aspects of both Key Concept 1.4 and Key Concept 2.2.
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
179
Using the Themes
Teachers and students often nd it challenging to maintain focus on the broader processes
and narratives of European history that link together individual historical events. The course
themes were designed to meet that challenge and should be an important part of every unit
of instruction. A tting test of overall student understanding would be to ask students to
develop a brief analytical narrative for each theme at the end of the course. While it would be
atypical to structure the entire course thematically, when developing chronological units of
study, teachers should always keep an eye on the elaboration of a theme in previous units and
anticipate further developments in future units related to the same theme. While the themes
include the traditional approaches to analyzing the past, namely, through the lens of political,
economic, social, cultural, or intellectual history, they are pitched with a narrative tension
in mind, yet without prescribing a particular conclusion. The themes therefore facilitate
identifying and making connections across the dierent periods, enabling students to grasp
the big picture of European history.
The learning objectives for the course, which are based on the themes, provide opportunities
and examples of how to connect the themes across dierent time periods. The chart below
provides an example of one learning objective for each of the six themes, demonstrating how
dierent facets of a learning objective can be used to connect topics across multiple periods
and places.
Theme Learning Objective Connections Across Periods
Int
eraction of
Europe and
the World
INT-5 Explain how
encounters between Europe
and the wider world shaped
European culture, politics,
and society.
w
Explain how the slave trade and revolts
against it aected European attitudes toward
race. (Periods 1 and 2)
w
Compare the intellectual and cultural
impacts of colonization in the 18th and 19th
centuries. (Periods 2 and 3)
w
Explore how ideologies of cultural and
racial superiority served as a pretext and
justication for imperialism. (Period 3)
w
Examine how immigration into Europe after
World War II challenged European attitudes
concerning race. (Period 4)
Poverty and
Prosperity
PP-1 Explain how
capitalism has developed
as an economic system.
w
Explain how overseas trading led to the
rise of the Atlantic powers and a consumer
revolution. (Periods 1 and 2)
w
Illustrate how the Agricultural Revolution, a
loosening of traditional restrictions on trade
and labor, and the emergence of cottage
industry contributed to the creation of a
market economy. (Periods 1 and 2)
w
Compare mercantilist theories and practices
with new theories espousing a free market.
(Periods 1 and 2)
w
Discuss the reasons for and impact of
industrialization and its spread. (Periods 3
and 4)
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
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AP European History Instructional Approaches
Theme Learning Objective Connections Across Periods
Objective
Knowledge
and
Subjective
Visions
OS-8 Evaluate the extent to
which religion, over time,
shifted from a matter of
public concern to one of
private belief.
Discuss secular models for individual
behavior that arose during the Renaissance.
(Period 1)
w
w
Examine how religious reform put a new
emphasis on the individual believer.
(Period 1)
w
Explore the role of the Enlightenment in
reframing religion. (Period 2)
w
Discuss the emergence of religious
toleration and challenges caused by
immigration. (Periods 1, 2, and 4)
States
and Other
Institutions
of Power
SP-4 Describe the
emergence and
development of political
theories and practices
that stressed the political
importance and rights of
the individual.
w
Discuss how marginalized groups (e.g.,
women, Jews, workers, people of color)
employed the language of natural rights to
argue for equality, particularly during the
French Revolution, with varying degrees of
success. (Period 2)
w
Compare the arguments for equality made
by and on the behalf of workers and women
and the responses to these arguments.
(Periods 3 and 4)
w
Examine anticolonial and nationalist
responses to European imperialism and
their impact. (Periods 3 and 4)
Individual
and Society
IS-4 Explain how and
why the status of specic
groups within society has
changed over time.
w
Provide a framework for how identities are
constructed through language, depictions,
and customs. (Period 1)
w
Show how certain minorities—Jews, other
religious minorities, accused witches,
colonial people, etc.—were dened as a
problem for cities and states, and discuss
measures taken against them. (Periods 1
and 2)
w
Explain how mass politics and imperialism
created ideologies of identity and exclusion.
(Periods 2 and 3)
w
Discuss the reasons why totalitarian and
nationalist movements sought to eliminate
those they labeled as outsiders, sometimes
by means of genocide. (Period 4)
w
Address the ways in which Europe’s contact
with the non-European world through (de)
colonization and immigration forced a
reevaluation of European identity. (Period 4)
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AP European History Course and Exam Description
AP European History Instructional Approaches
181
Teachers will need a wide array of historical source material to help students become
procient with the practices and skills and develop a conceptual understanding of European
history. In addition to using a textbook that will provide required course content, teachers
should create regular opportunities for students to examine primary source material in
dierent and varied forms, as well as other types of historical scholarship. Rich, diverse
source material allows teachers more exibility in designing learning activities that develop
the habits of historical thinking that are essential for student success in the course.
Textbooks
The textbook is an important tool that teachers can use to help students develop
understanding of European history. Most importantly, the textbook should be written at a
college level and must include discussion of historical developments and processes from
c. 1450 into the 21st century in a way that encourages conceptual understanding. While
nearly all college-level European History textbooks address the various themes of European
history, one or more of these approaches may be dominant or, on the other hand, minimized.
It will be important for teachers to identify other types of secondary sources and supplement
the textbook accordingly, to ensure that each of the six thematic approaches receives
adequate attention. Ideally, the textbook selected will use these approaches as threads to
make connections across dierent time periods.
While the College Board provides an example textbook list that teachers may consult to help
determine whether a text is considered appropriate in meeting the AP European History
Course Audit curricular requirement, teachers select textbooks locally. Additionally, the AP
European Teacher Community on AP Central provides reviews of recently published texts to
help teachers determine their appropriateness for the AP course.
Theme Learning Objective Connections Across Periods
National
Identity and
European
Identity
NI-1 Explain how and why
national identities were
created, developed, and
challenged.
w
Explain how development of Renaissance-
era city states aected the way groups
identied themselves. (Period 1)
w
Explore how the Thirty Years’ War and
Treaty of Westphalia both supported and
challenged ideas of national identity.
(Period 1 and 2)
w
Explain the ways that absolutism
contributed to the development of national
identity. (Period 2)
w
Examine the ways in which the two world
wars and their aftermath both strengthened
and challenged ideas of national identity.
(Period 4)
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AP European History Instructional Approaches
Students will nd it useful to analyze primary source material regularly to deepen their
understanding of the key concepts addressed by the textbook and develop the required
practices and skills. While increasing numbers of textbook publishers are including primary
source material within the text, it is important that teachers introduce students to a wide
variety of source material, providing opportunities to analyze evidence from the past from
diverse sources. These sources must include written documents as well as images, such as
photographs, cartoons, and works of art. Teachers may utilize the ancillary materials and
website sources that accompany most of the recently published textbooks to nd high quality
primary source documents, artwork, charts, and other sources of data that are linked to the
topics and themes addressed in the textbook. Many teachers may prefer to augment a textbook
that contains few or short primary sources with document readers that provide lengthier
selections or online compilations of primary sources related to particular topic areas.
Student success in the course also depends on exposure to and analysis of multiple
secondary sources. These include noncontemporary accounts of the past written by
historians or scholars of other related disciplines, such as economists, sociologists, political
commentators, or art historians, as well as data sets, charts, and maps. Secondary sources
of all types can provide a broader and more substantive perspective on topics addressed
by a textbook. Additionally, secondary sources can be helpful in supplementing textbooks
with older publication dates. It is especially important that students receive instruction
in the practice of analyzing and comparing historians’ interpretations of events; teachers
should oer students opportunities to compare a primary source with a secondary source or
compare the views represented by two dierent secondary sources. This need can often be
met by document readers that provide both primary and secondary source material or through
ancillary resource material oered by textbook publishers.
Teachers should also consult school librarians to help identify databases that contain
a variety of useful source material—both primary and secondary. Many schools already
subscribe to databases, such as ABC-CLIO, JSTOR, EBSCO, or Gale, that may augment the
materials found in texts or document readers. Librarians can assist in developing course-
specic LibGuides that give students easy access to the source material identied by teachers
to be used at home or in the classroom.
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183
Developing the Disciplinary
History is a story of the past that serves to guide the present and the future. In a personal
way, it enriches one’s sense of belonging to a human community that transcends both time
and space. As we study the past, we learn that during the Renaissance, for example, educated
individuals strove to identify and enhance the qualities that made them unique, just as we do;
we learn that during the Reformation, many struggled to articulate the elements of their faith,
as many still do today; and we learn that in the aftermath of World War II, people were both
in awe and fearful of technology, which has an even greater presence in our lives today. In
terms of informing the future, history oers alternative ways of addressing unique or recurring
challenges, which, amongst other things, can aid in the formulation of one’s own goals and
commitments. The study of the Holocaust serves as a constant reminder of the dangers of
discrimination; the past struggles of women and workers can inspire us as we develop tactics
in the struggle for the rights of others today; and understanding how governments responded
to the Great Depression in the 1930s helps us formulate responses to current economic crises.
The narrative that history relates, however, is only as faithful and complete a representation of
what happened in the past as the human mind can recover. Because of this incompleteness,
historical analysis is prone to error and rests upon interpretation, requiring critical evaluation
at every step. The disciplinary practices and reasoning skills articulated in the course
framework equip students to begin to understand and create historical knowledge in a
process similar to that followed by historians. This process begins with a close analysis of
historical sources and reaches its conclusion when evidence, drawn from historical sources,
is used eectively to support an argument about the past.
Students best develop the ability to reason historically by exploring and interpreting a wide
variety of primary and secondary sources. Primary sources provide evidence of the past
that may point to some larger aspect of a historical development or process. Secondary
sources provide students with practice in analyzing how historical arguments are developed
using diverse historical evidence. Additionally, exposure to a variety of diverse historical
interpretations builds students’ ability to evaluate the eectiveness of dierent types of
historical arguments.
In order to do their work, historians must be active readers—able to comprehend what they
have read and use the information in meaningful ways to build an understanding of the past.
Similarly, students must develop the skills necessary to be active readers who can extract
useful information from texts, make supportable inferences, and draw appropriate conclusions
from the sources.
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AP European History Instructional Approaches
The following table provides examples of the types of strategies students can use to become
active readers of historical texts.
Before Reading
w
Focus on an essential question that the text helps answer
w
Preview the text to determine the topic and the text’s structure and purpose
(e.g., argument, narrative, explanation)
w
Use the title and preview of the text to activate prior knowledge
Develop questions about the text and/or its topic that might be answered
when reading
w
During Reading
w
Monitor reading to ensure comprehension
w
Answer questions developed before reading
w
Annotate the text for main ideas, answers to questions, interesting or
surprising aspects of the text, and parts of it that are dicult to understand
w
Periodically stop and reect on what’s being read and how it ts with prior
knowledge and the other parts of the text
After Reading
w
Respond to questions developed before and during reading
w
Reect on the text, what it means, and whether it supports or refutes prior
ideas and understandings
w
Draw conclusions and devise generalizations
w
Make connections to other texts, key concepts, and overarching ideas
w
Discuss the text with peers to ensure understanding and have remaining
questions answered
The analysis of a primary source requires more than a mere description or summary of its
content. When a historian analyzes a source, he or she thinks critically not only about the
content of the source, but also who the author and presumed audience of the source were,
why the source was produced, and what factors inuenced the production of that source.
All of these factors contribute to the usefulness of the source for a historian in answering
particular historical questions. In analyzing primary sources, therefore, several dierent
features need to be considered, including its content, authorship, author’s point of view,
author’s purpose, audience, format, and historical context. Analyzing these features helps
establish the reliability of the source and its possible limitations for historians. A rigorous
analysis of sources focuses on the interplay between all of these features of a source, enabling
one to eectively evaluate its usefulness in answering a particular historical question.
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185
The chart below identies underlying questions that help students make productive inquiries
as they analyze primary sources. The questions guide students so that they can extract
useful information, make supportable inferences, and draw appropriate conclusions from the
sources—all of which are necessary when students use primary sources to create and support
a historical argument. The chart below also explains the signicance of these inquiries and
provides suggested strategies to further prociency.
Source
features Underlying questions
Why are the questions signicant
for analysis?
Suggested instructional
strategies to develop prociency
Content What point(s) is the
document trying to
make?
What does the
document not say
(i.e., does it selectively
include and/or exclude
information)?
What of its content is
usable by a historian?
Documents of every type are
incomplete. They may consist
merely of the best information
available at a given time and
place. They may be limited by the
time or resources available to the
creator. Valid interpretation can
only be based on an awareness of
precisely what a document says
and what it does not say.
Ask students to paraphrase
the main points the document
asserts.
Ask students to state what a
document does not say on the
topic it purports to address.
Ask students what content a
historian would need to double-
check before using it to make an
argument.
Format/
medium
What is the format of
the source: text, image,
art, newspaper article,
letter, cartoon, lyrics,
op-ed, etc?
What does the choice
of medium reveal
about the author’s
intent?
Does the source’s
format or genre (novel,
romantic poetry,
Impressionist painting,
cartoon) add meaning
to what the source
explicitly states?
When an author wishes to
communicate something, he or she
must decide what format to use. A
novel, a newspaper article, and a
cartoon might all be used to make
the same point, but the way in
which they make it is very dierent.
Readers have certain assumptions
about certain media; for example,
that newspaper articles are always
accurate or that letters to the
editor are always biased. We may
share these assumptions, and
so we need to be aware of them
when reading a given document.
Furthermore, the format of a
document contributes to its overall
meaning. A ctional account of
the wealth created by the slave
trade and a table documenting that
wealth numerically could be created
by the same author with the same
purpose of ending slavery, but the
rst might seek to do so by having
a rapacious plantation owner
communicate the information, while
the second might be juxtaposed
with a table documenting the
number of Africans who died on
the Middle Passage.
Give students three types of
documents concerning the same
event, such as a newspaper
article, a political cartoon, and
a personal letter. Ask students
to compare the way in which
information about the event is
communicated in each source.
Ask students what assumptions
a reader could make about each
document based on its format or
the genre to which it belongs.
Provide students with a
visual source and engage in
a discussion about how the
image, including any symbols,
conveys meaning.
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AP European History Instructional Approaches
Source
features Underlying questions
Why are the questions signicant
for analysis?
Suggested instructional
strategies to develop prociency
Authorship Who wrote the
document and what is
his or her relationship
to the historical event
being addressed?
What was the author’s
position in society?
Do we know anything
about this person
beyond what is provided
in the source that would
aect the reliability of
the document?
The author of every document
is a unique individual with a
unique point of view. The author’s
relationship to an event (such as
distance in time or experience
from that event) aects his or her
understanding of that event. Even
an author who seeks to write an
objective and truthful account
of an event will be limited by
his or her ability to understand
what happened, to accurately
remember the event, and to
determine what was signicant
about the event and what can be
left out of the account. To make
generalizations about the past,
we must rst understand who the
author of any given document
was. If we do not know who the
author was, we must make an
educated guess.
If the author is known, ask
students to research the author.
If the author is unknown, ask
students what the content and/
or format, along with the date
the document was produced,
suggest about authorship.
In either case, discuss how
knowing who the author is
(or might be) aects how we
understand the content.
Ask students how an author of
a dierent social status or with
a dierent political point of view
might respond to the document.
Give students some information
about the author, and ask
which piece of information
might render the document less
reliable as an objective account.
Author’s
point of view
What was the author’s
point of view?
Does the author’s point
of view undermine the
explicit purpose of the
source?
How can you tell, if at
all, what other beliefs
the author might hold?
As discussed below, all sources
have a purpose, which the author
is usually aware of. However, he
or she may not be aware of how
his or her point of view shapes a
document. Factors that may shape
point of view include aspects of
the creator’s identity (e.g., gender,
religion, ethnicity, political
aliation), his or her relation to
the event (e.g., actor, bystander,
critic), and the distance in time
between the event and the
document’s creation. For example,
a humanist extolling the values of
education to create civic-minded
individuals may assume that all
individuals have the leisure time
necessary to pursue an education
because he is addressing his
work to other men of elite social
status, like himself. He thus
introduces a bias into the source,
which may aect its reliability.
Compare two accounts of
the same event by authors
about whom a good deal of
information is known; for
example, Helen Maria Williams
and Arthur Young on the 1790
Festival of the Federation in
France. Ask students to identify
dierences in the accounts, and
discuss how what we know
about the authors can explain
these dierences.
After identifying possible biases
in a source, ask students how a
reader who shared these biases
and one who did not (or who
had dierent biases) might
respond to the source.
Compare dierent types of
sources—text, map, photograph,
painting, cartoon, chart—to
ask what we can tell about
an author’s beliefs from the
source itself.
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187
Source
features Underlying questions
Why are the questions signicant
for analysis?
Suggested instructional
strategies to develop prociency
Author’s
purpose
Why did the author
create the source?
Why was the
document created at
this time?
Why has it survived to
the present?
How does its purpose
aect its reliability or
usefulness?
When an author creates a
source—whether it is a diary
entry, a political treaty, or a
painting—he or she has a
purpose in mind: to record the
events of the day, to end a war,
to paint an image that a patron
would want to purchase, etc. This
purpose might involve convincing
another person, controlling
the actions of many people, or
serving as a reminder to oneself.
As time goes by, the purpose of
the document may aect whether
or not it is preserved. Documents
deemed unimportant (a child’s
diary) or controversial (a record
of collaboration during World
War II) often do not survive.
Understanding purpose helps
historians understand historical
processes, as each document not
only tells us about the past but is
also the result of an action taken
by one or more people in the past.
After students have identied
the author and discussed his or
her point of view, ask them what
they think the author hoped
to accomplish by creating the
document.
Have students research what
was happening during the year
and in the country/region in
which the document was created.
Based on this research, ask them
to come up with two arguments
about why the time and place
are crucial in understanding the
purpose of the document.
Ask students why they think
the document was deemed
important enough to keep. While
reminding them of the time
and place it was created, ask
what other types of documents
may have been created but not
preserved that might help us
understand the same event.
Have students identify three
ways in which the purpose of
the document might make it less
reliable for historians.
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Source
features Underlying questions
Why are the questions signicant
for analysis?
Suggested instructional
strategies to develop prociency
Historical
situation
When and where was
the source produced?
What
contemporaneous
events might have
aected the author’s
viewpoint and/or
message?
How does the
historical situation
that the source was
produced in aect the
reliability of a source?
As stated earlier in the discussion
on purpose, each document was
created at a specic moment
in time and in a specic place.
Identifying this time and place
helps us understand purpose,
but in order to understand
the situation or context of a
document, we need to go beyond
simple identication. When a
historian talks about situation or
context, he or she is referring to
specic historical processes and
events that can explain both the
author’s reasons for writing the
document and the ways in which
contemporaries understood the
document. For example, we may
know that Simone de Beauvoir
published The Second Sex in
France in 1949 during a “return
to normalcy” in which women
were encouraged to leave the
workforce. Knowing this helps
us understand the author’s
purpose. To understand the larger
context of the book, we must ask
what other relevant historical
processes were occurring at
the time. The reaction against
women’s rights that began in the
1930s and continued into the
1950s; the growth in number,
since the 1850s, of women who
were gaining access to higher
education; and the existentialist
emphasis on personal
responsibility and autonomy
as a reaction against French
collaboration with the Nazis
are all important aspects of the
context in which this book was
written and rst read. Knowing
the context helps us understand
authorship, purpose, the choice
of format, presumed audience,
and content.
Give students three documents
demanding greater educational
opportunities for women:
one from the 1850s, one from
the 1890s, and one from the
1960s—all without a date or
authorship information. Ask
them to form hypotheses about
where and when each document
was produced. Discuss what
elements of the document serve
as reliable clues to situation.
Have students read a document
and then discuss its situation,
focusing on three historical
processes or events that were
contemporaneous with the
document. Ask students how
these processes/events might
have inuenced the author and
audience.
Give students two accounts of
the Cold War: one written in the
1950s and one written today.
Ask how the situation shaped
each account and which they
think is more reliable.
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189
Source
features Underlying questions
Why are the questions signicant
for analysis?
Suggested instructional
strategies to develop prociency
Audience Who was the source
created for?
How might the audience
have aected the content
of the source?
How might the
audience have aected
the reliability of the
source?
Every document is created with
an audience in mind, even if
that audience is oneself. When
creating a document, authors
make decisions based on
what they think the audience
already knows and what they
want the audience to know and
believe. In doing so, the author
might leave certain information
out, emphasize some points
rather than others, or adopt a
specic tone or point of view.
Understanding who the audience
was presumed to be and what
impact the author wished to
have on them helps us better
understand the content and
purpose of a document.
After discussing authorship and
purpose, ask students to identify
a possible audience for the
document. Discuss why some
audiences are more plausible
than others.
Ask students to imagine how
the author might have recast the
content for a dierent audience.
Give students two documents
written by the same author but
for dierent audiences, such as
an editorial and a personal letter
by Winston Churchill. Ask them
which source is more reliable
for making an argument about
how Churchill’s politics aected
his private life. Ask them what
argument the other source
would better serve.
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Source
features Underlying questions
Why are the questions signicant
for analysis?
Suggested instructional
strategies to develop prociency
Limitations What does the
document not tell me?
What might have
limited the knowledge
of the author (e.g.,
social status or
position, education)?
What other kinds of
sources might ll in
the content gaps?
What other documents
might oer alternatives
to the author’s point of
view?
What other documents
might help to better
understand the
author’s own point of
view?
Every reader’s tendency when
reading a new document is to
mentally add information that
helps them make sense of it.
Historians are conscious of this
and seek out other documents or
information that could explain the
source’s meaning. In addition, a
historian must be aware that the
meaning of a document often lies
in what it does not say, as much
as in what it says. In this way,
gaps often give us clues to the
author’s point of view.
Have students identify three
things they do not know after
reading a text.
Ask students to engage in
a document-based question
exercise and explain two to
three ways in which the sources
provide a limited perspective on
the event described.
Have students choose among a
number of preselected sources
and decide which sources best
ll in the gaps of the original
source.
Give students two documents
(in addition to the original
source) and ask them which a
historian would prefer to use
as an example of a reliable,
alternative point of view.
Have students brainstorm what
the “perfect source” would be
to help them better understand
the author’s point of view.
Discuss whether or not such a
source was likely to have been
produced at the time.
Analyzing secondary sources involves evaluating the dierent ways historians interpret the
past, including dierences in interpretation of the same historical event or process. It also
involves nding patterns and trends in quantitative data sources, such as tables, charts, and
maps, and considering the historical implications of those patterns and trends.
In order to interpret secondary sources, students need to understand how a historian uses
evidence to support her or his argument. Historians, like AP history students, rely on
incomplete primary sources—partial remnants of the information that was available at the
time being studied. The historian must make inferences from explicit or implicit information
in primary source material and posit relationships between sources that were produced
independently of one another. For this reason, understanding a historical narrative requires
identifying and evaluating how the historian has interpreted and combined sources to make
them tell a coherent story. Students should understand that such interpreting and combining
serves as the connective tissue in every historical narrative.
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Underlying
questions
Why are the questions
signicant for analysis?
Suggested instructional strategies to develop
prociency
What is the
main idea, or
argument, of
the excerpt
written by each
historian?
What is one
piece of
information
from this time
period that
supports the
argument of
the historian?
What is a
piece of
evidence that
undermines
the argument?
Why might
a dierent
historian make
a dierent
argument
concerning the
same event or
development?
Historians make dierent
interpretations of the
past; history, by its
nature as a discipline, is
inherently interpretive.
When they examine the
past, historians make
use of dierent reasoning
skills to analyze primary
and secondary sources
and then organize the
information from these
sources into a coherent
narrative based on an
argument, or thesis, about
the past. This argument
is an interpretation of
the past that reects
the historian’s best
understanding. However,
written history, like the
events that constitute
history, is always changing,
as new information and
new ways of looking at
the past become available.
It is therefore important
to understand that all
accounts of historical
events are interpretations of
those events.
Give students two paragraphs
concerning a specic event, each written
by a dierent historian. Ask students to
identify the main argument of each.
Provide students with a paragraph written by
a historian explaining an event in history. In
small groups, ask students to nd two pieces
of information that support the argument
being made and two that challenge it.
After studying various causes for an
event such as the Industrial Revolution,
give students two excerpts, each from a
dierent historian that provide dierent
interpretations of the event. Ask students
to write a short essay in support of one of
the interpretations using primary sources and
what they know about that period in history as
evidence for their argument. After the essays
have been returned to students, pair those who
supported dierent historians and have them
come up with an explanation for the dierence
in interpretations.
In order to foster this kind of understanding and see the overall picture, teachers might ask
students to break down a given historical account into two components: what a source used by
the historian actually contains and what the historian says it means or the implications he or she
draws from it. In addition, teachers can present students with a historiographical debate such
as, Was World War I the inevitable result of the build-up of tensions in the early 20th century? To
motivate this debate, teachers can provide students with two or more perspectives on the issue.
The following chart identies underlying questions and strategies to help students become
procient in analyzing secondary sources.
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Using Historical Reasoning to Develop
When they study the past, historians inquire into the reasons why historical events,
processes, and actions unfolded the way they did. As they begin to articulate possible
explanations of these events, historians use reasoning processes that rely on their awareness
of dierent types of causal relationships, connections, and patterns. They then formulate a
claim, or thesis, about why the event or process occurred the way it did, and then develop
an argument that explains how the claim is supported by the available historical evidence.
A strong historical argument also accounts for how some evidence might seem to modify
or refute the claim, addressing alternate explanations of the event or process. In order for
students to learn how to create persuasive and meaningful historical arguments, AP history
teachers should help students improve their prociency with each of these practices in turn.
Historical Reasoning About the Past
Students can develop their ability to reason meaningfully about the past by using the same
skills and practices they encounter in historical writings. The most common ways in which
historians reason about the past involve:
n
seeing the connections between the particular and the general (contextualization)
n
analyzing similarities and dierences (comparison)
n
analyzing cause and eect (causation)
n
identifying long-term patterns of continuity or change over time
Historians employ these types of reasoning to construct explanations about the causes and
signicance of past events, using evidence to support their claims. Historians also must take
disparate and sometimes contradictory evidence into account in making their arguments,
considering possible alternative explanations and the underlying complexity of the processes
they examine.
The following chart provides some suggestions for ways of approaching each of these skills
in the AP European History course.
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Skills Underlying questions
Why are the questions
signicant for analysis?
Suggested instructional
strategies to develop
prociency
Contextualization What was happening
at the time the event
occurred or the
document was created
that might have had an
inuence?
What was happening at
the specic place where
an event occurred? In
the country as a whole?
In the larger region? In
the world?
How does a specic
event relate to larger
processes? How do
larger processes shape a
specic event?
How does the context in
which a source is read or
viewed inform how it is
understood?
Historians examine the
historical context of events
to understand why things
happened the way they did.
Context is dierent from
causation in that instead of
focusing on specic events or
actions that may have caused
another event to occur,
historians refer to context
as the larger constellation of
developments and processes
that may not have served
as a specic cause but may
still have inuenced an
event. In other words, the
context of an event often
inuences its course, even
if it did not cause the event.
Context can operate on
many dierent levels, from
the local to the global. For
example, while Europeans
did not initially undertake the
process of creating a common
market as a direct result of
decolonization, over time,
the loss of overseas colonies
served as an important
context for its development.
Understanding the historical
situation that a source was
created within is crucial in
making sense of primary
sources. For example, to fully
understand the treaties drawn
up at the Congress of Vienna,
we need to understand the
intellectual and cultural
currents of the time that may
have inuenced the political
and military decisions that
were made.
When discussing a specic
event, such as the English
Civil War, have students make
a list of 10 things that were
happening in the decade before
its outbreak. Discuss whether
each was a direct cause or part
of the larger context. For those
that are identied as context,
discuss how they inuenced
the course of the Civil War.
Have students research
what was happening
locally, regionally, and
internationally at the time
an important work, such as
Montesquieu’s Persian Letters,
was published. Ask them to
explain how a passage from
this book reects one or more
of these contexts.
Have students read a section
from the textbook concerning
an example of decolonization,
such as the independence
and partition of India, and a
secondary source that denes
decolonization in general
terms. In class, discuss
how the event reects the
more general denition of
decolonization. As part of the
class discussion, identify other
major developments of the
period, such as the beginnings
of the Cold War. Ask students
how this development may
have inuenced the British to
withdraw from India.
After discussing a propaganda
poster created by the Nazi
Party to encourage mothers to
have many children, ask how
the poster might be received
in a dierent context, such
as among British supporters
of eugenics before the war or
among feminists in the 1970s.
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Skills Underlying questions
Why are the questions
signicant for analysis?
Suggested instructional
strategies to develop
prociency
Comparison How is one development
like/unlike another
development from the
same time/a dierent
time?
Why did an event or
development aect
dierent groups in
dierent ways?
How does a viewpoint
(from a historical actor or
historian) compare with
another when discussing
the same event or
historical development?
In order to make sense
of specic events or
developments, historians
often put them in a
comparative context in
order to see a larger picture.
For example, comparing
the military strategies of
dierent European countries
during World War I can tell
one something about the
assumptions and concerns
of European leaders that
looking at only one country
often cannot. Comparison
also helps in understanding
the complexity of historical
change, since dierent groups
in society often have dierent
experiences of the same
event or same development.
Comparison is a skill used on
a daily basis by historians,
who must always take into
account dierences among
sources, both primary and
secondary.
After discussing
industrialization in western
Europe, ask students to write
a paragraph identifying the
similarities and dierences
in industrialization in
Great Britain, France,
Belgium, and the German
states. Discuss these
similarities and dierences
in class, and then discuss
industrialization in eastern
Europe. In small groups,
have students discuss what
the comparisons among the
dierent European countries
can tell us about the process
of industrialization in general.
After having taught the
Renaissance, introduce
Joan Kelly-Gadol’s assertion
that women did not have a
Renaissance. Ask students
to assess this statement by
comparing the experience of
men and women during the
Renaissance. Provide students
with information concerning
men and women from
dierent social groups to be
used as a basis for discussion.
As a class, identify a list
of reasons that explains
the dierent experiences of
dierent groups.
Give students two short
explanations of the French
Revolution: one that focuses
on political aspects and
another that focuses on
social aspects. Ask students
to compare the two and
identify what is similar and
dierent in each explanation.
Then give them a primary
source and ask them which
historian’s argument the
source would best support.
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Skills Underlying questions
Why are the questions
signicant for analysis?
Suggested instructional
strategies to develop
prociency
Causation What were the reasons
for this event? What
factors contributed to a
specic pattern or trend?
What prompted this
person/group to act/react
this way?
What resulted from this
event, pattern, or action?
What were the short-
term eects? What were
the long-term eects?
What cause seemed to
be the most signicant?
What eect seemed to be
the most signicant and
why?
How do the assessments
of historians concerning
causation dier from
those who experienced
the event, pattern, or
action?
How might the chain of
cause and eect have
changed and at what
point? What causes were
contingent on previous
eects? What individual
choice(s) made a
signicant dierence
in the lead up to a
particular event or trend?
Was there a moment of
chance that inuenced
the chain of events?
Every event, pattern or trend,
or action has a cause—a
reason or set of reasons why
it happened. Historians do
not simply arrange events in
chronological order; instead,
they seek to understand why
things happened as well
as what eects an event,
pattern or trend, or action
had. Most events, actions,
or trends have many causes;
historians seek to identify
the most signicant short-
and long-term causes and
eects. Signicance can
be understood in dierent
ways. Sometimes the most
signicant causes and
eects are those that are
the most direct. Sometimes
they are dened as those
that contributed the most.
Other times, historians
look for specic types of
causes and eects, such as
political causes or economic
eects. Additionally,
historians understand that
events are not the result of
predetermined outcomes or
inevitable progress. They
recognize that all events are
contingent on many factors,
from individual choices
to unforeseeable events—
change one of these factors
and history could have been
very dierent. Focusing
on contingency, historians
explore concepts of agency
and individual action when
discussing the signicance of
a particular cause or eect.
Begin a classroom discussion
of a specic event by
reviewing long- and short-
term causes. Ask students to
identify the most signicant
causes and explain why they
made the choices they did.
After discussing an event or
action in class, ask students
to identify a short-term and
long-term political, cultural,
and economic eect of that
event.
Have students work in groups
to construct a timeline that
charts causes and eects of
a specic event or trend. In
a follow-up discussion with
the entire class, identify the
most signicant causes and
eects.
Ask students to compare
selected pages in the
textbook on a specic event
with a primary source
concerning the event.
Discuss the dierences in
explanations of causes and
eects, and ask students why
someone contemporary to the
event might identify dierent
causes and eects than a
historian would.
After constructing a timeline
that depicts the causes and
eects of a particular event or
trend, have students choose
to change one cause and
explain how this change
would have made the most
signicant dierence in the
outcome and why. In a follow-
up discussion, have students
debate their changes, using
the evidence from their cause
and eect timelines.
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Skills Underlying questions
Why are the questions
signicant for analysis?
Suggested instructional
strategies to develop
prociency
Continuity and
change over time
What has changed
within a specic time
period?
What has remained the
same within a specic
time period?
What can explain
why some things have
changed and others
have not?
How are continuity and
change represented
in dierent types of
sources; for example, in
graphs, charts, political
cartoons, and texts?
What might be the
reasons behind dierent
depictions of continuity
and change?
Discussions of cause and
eect focus on change, but
both change and continuity
are important to historians.
Even in moments of
tremendous change, such
as the Russian Revolution,
for most people who
lived through it, attitudes
concerning the family and
gender roles remained the
same. Some of the most
interesting questions that
historians investigate ask
why, at the same moment in
history, some things change
while others do not.
Give students a range of
years, such as 1850–1914,
and ask them to identify three
aspects of European life and
society that changed in those
years and three aspects that
did not.
Pick a specic date or event
that is usually associated
with great change, such as
1945. Have students discuss
what did not change from
before 1945 to after 1945.
After a class discussion
focusing on change and
continuity during a certain
period or around a specic
event, ask students to write
a short paragraph explaining
why some aspects of society
changed while others didn’t.
Compare a variety of primary
and secondary sources
concerning the Industrial
Revolution. Discuss with
students how each source
depicts and explains change
during the Industrial
Revolution. Then ask
students what the sources
don’t include, focusing on
both change and continuity.
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Formulating a Claim and Reasoning
In order to develop a historical argument, historians formulate a claim, or thesis, that is based
on logical historical reasoning. A meaningful claim must be based in evidence, historically
defensible, and evaluative. The claim must take a stance on an issue that could plausibly be
argued dierently, and go beyond simply listing causes or factors, qualifying its assertions
by looking at an issue from multiple perspectives or lenses. The reasoning used in the thesis
often sets up the structure of the argument in the essay that follows. These might include:
n
Weighing the relative signicance of regional, national, or global contexts for
understanding a historical event (Contextualization)
n
Identifying areas of similarity or dierence between historical phenomena, in order to
consider possible underlying reasons for similarity or dierence (Comparison)
n
Considering both the immediate causes or eects of an event as well as long-term causes
or eects, and assigning a relative signicance to each (Causation)
n
Identifying ways that a historical development might be part of a long-term pattern (continuity)
or mark a moment of departure from such patterns (change) (Continuity and Change over Time)
Historians use historical reasoning in tandem with their analysis of historical evidence in order
to develop and support a historical argument. As historians analyze primary or secondary
sources, they also consider how they might be used to support, qualify, or modify an argument
about the past. They then organize the evidence from historical sources in meaningful and
persuasive ways to support a thesis. However, historians must also acknowledge that not
all sources necessarily support the argument, and that there may be other plausible ways to
understand a historical development. Historians therefore account for disparate, diverse, or
contradictory evidence from a variety of sources when making their arguments, and explain
why the argument is the most persuasive way to understand the totality of the evidence. This
ability to consider how historical evidence aects an argument is one of the most challenging
aspects of the historian’s craft being developed in the AP history classroom.
To develop student prociency in formulating and sustaining an argument in writing
assignments, the teacher should encourage students to develop arguments throughout an
essay, and not just in the thesis or introduction. The following chart lists some of the possible
ways students might develop their ability to use diverse historical evidence in their writing to
support, qualify, or modify an argument about the past.
Students should be encouraged to ...
Think about dierences in opinions as they read and analyze sources.
Clearly state how one perspective or argument might undermine another or lead to dierent
conclusions.
Look for relationships between sources, and be attentive to the ways in which dierent
sources might approach the same topic from very dierent perspectives.
Illustrate how one source functions as an explicit or implicit critique of another.
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AP European History Instructional Approaches
Through Instructional Choices
The AP European History course is designed with the assumption that teachers will include
the historical developments and processes discussed in the concept outline, making choices
to go into depth about specic historical individuals, events, treaties, etc., that illustrate or
exemplify the required historical developments and processes. This allows teachers greater
exibility and ensures that students leave the course with the ability to use specic historical
evidence to support their understanding and analysis of broader developments and processes.
Increasing Depth
There are two dierent but complementary ways of achieving depth in the AP European
History course.
1. Developing a detailed understanding of a specic historical event. Learning to
progress from a general understanding of historical processes or developments to a
more detailed understanding of the complexities, contradictions, and paradoxes of a
particular event in history provides an opportunity for students to develop practices
and skills and understand how dierent aspects of history—such as political, social,
and cultural history—are interrelated. Teachers can cover the illustrative examples
provided in the concept outline in depth so that students acquire greater knowledge
of specic historical events and understand how these events exemplify the broader
processes indicated by the concept outline and the learning objectives.
2. Reecting on history on a broader, conceptual level. This denition of depth refers
to the ability to elaborate on concepts that have shaped the narrative of European
history, such as nationalism, or elaborate on concepts that shape historical thinking,
such as causation. Conceptual understanding allows students to apply the knowledge
of historical processes acquired through a focus on specic examples chosen by the
teacher to other examples of the same or similar processes that may be on the exam.
The course framework provides two distinct tools—the learning objectives and the illustrative
examples—to help teachers manage the breadth of the course through eective instructional
choices.
Learning Objectives
The learning objectives demonstrate how historical developments and processes connect
over time and across regions. The learning objectives, therefore, chart the contours of the
conceptual understanding required of students, while also pointing to specic sections of the
concept outline where such understanding applies. The learning objectives help teachers and
students see how examples from one time or place can be used to understand those in other
times and places, since they are organized around historical processes and concepts that
are applicable over time and in dierent historical contexts. This approach should reassure
teachers that they do not need to cover each part of the curriculum in equal detail but rather
their focus should be on transfer of understanding: how spending more time on specic
examples will allow students to apply conceptual understanding across time periods or from
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199
one event to another. For example, spending time on an in-depth discussion of nationalism in
Period 2 (NI-1 and NI-2), in the context of the French Revolution, means that when students
encounter nationalism later in the course, they will already have an understanding of this
concept that they can apply to other contexts.
The learning objectives for each theme provide a guide for managing breadth while increasing
depth. For example, learning objectives INT-1 and INT-2 address the reasons how and
why Europeans have sought contact and interaction with other parts of the world from the
16th century onward. INT-1 includes cultural reasons that might include Social Darwinism.
A teacher who had already discussed Social Darwinism in detail in the context of a lesson on
Darwin’s theories of evolution might spend less time on the use of Social Darwinism in the
colonial context, while a teacher whose interest lies more in overseas expansion might decide
to use the example of imperialism to discuss Darwin’s theories and their popularization in
Social Darwinism.
Illustrative Examples
The concept outline includes illustrative examples throughout that can be used to guide
instructional choices. The variety and diversity of illustrative examples are intended to
provide exibility so that teachers can cater their instruction to their strengths and students’
interests. The illustrative examples provide concrete illustrations of broader historical
developments and processes. For example, while everyone will cover rapid modernization
under Stalin, some teachers might spend more time on collectivization and others on the
Five Year Plan, both of which are provided as illustrative examples (4.2.I.D). Teachers may
also choose an illustrative example not included in the course framework, such as the creation
of the new industrial city Magnitogorsk (or Magnetic Mountain). In each case, students will
develop an understanding of how and why Stalin promoted rapid industrialization (content
required by the concept outline). They will also address topics covered in several learning
objectives, including attempts to overcome the economic crises of the interwar period (PP-5),
the relationship of the government to the economy (SP-1, SP-3), and the role of class in
shaping identity (IS-3 and IS-4).
Transferring Knowledge
Instructors should provide opportunities for students to transfer knowledge and skills
that they learn from studying one particular topic in depth to other similar specic topics
throughout the course. The learning objectives and the illustrative examples can help
facilitate this transfer; the example below about the French Revolution provides one model of
how to do this.
The main point students need to know about the French Revolution is that it “posed a
fundamental challenge to Europe’s existing political and social order” (2.1.IV). Coverage of
the revolution is organized by its dierent phases as well as by the experiences of dierent
social groups (women, slaves) and by its overall ideological emphasis. Illustrative examples
demonstrate how teachers can provide an in-depth discussion of the key concepts and
learning objectives that relate to the revolution without sacricing discussion of any required
knowledge. For example, in a discussion of the Constitution of 1791 (an illustrative example),
teachers would touch upon many of the learning objectives for this section, including several
within the themes of poverty and prosperity, states and other institutions of power, and
individual and society.
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The following chart further illustrates how a discussion of the illustrative example of the
Constitution of 1791 in Period 2 (Key Concept 2.1.IV.B) can be used to make connections with
other thematically related topics corresponding to the same learning objective: PP-4 Explain
the causes and consequences of economic inequality.
Some required
topics in Period 2
about challenges to
existing orders
Connecting the
learning objective
and illustrative
example
Thematically related
topics in Period 3
(from the concept
outline)
Connecting the
dierent topics
using the learning
objective to transfer
knowledge
2.1.IV.A: The French
Revolution resulted
from a combination
of long-term social
and political
causes, as well as
Enlightenment ideas,
exacerbated by
short-term scal and
economic crises.
Social inequality
contributed to the
creation of the
Constitution of 1791
because educated
members of the
Third Estate wanted
to abolish social
distinctions based
on birth. When these
educated men wrote
the constitution, they
allowed for equality
of opportunity but
they established
citizenship
qualications based
on wealth, denying
the poor and women
full political rights.
They thereby
contributed to social
inequality.
3.3.I.A: Liberals
emphasized popular
sovereignty,
individual rights,
and enlightened self-
interest but debated
the extent to which
all groups in society
should actively
participate in its
governance.
Nineteenth-century
liberals shared
many of the same
assumptions as
those who drafted
the constitution,
including the
assumption that
property was
a prerequisite
for political
participation. Many
liberals feared that
granting everyone
political rights,
including the poor
and women, would
lead to revolutionary
violence.
2.1.IV.B: The rst, or
liberal, phase of the
French Revolution
established a
constitutional
monarchy,
increased popular
participation,
nationalized the
Catholic Church, and
abolished hereditary
privileges.
3.3.I.D: Socialists
called for a
redistribution of
society’s resources
and wealth and
evolved from a
utopian to a Marxist
scientic critique of
capitalism.
Persistent economic
inequality due to
the establishment of
political distinctions
based on wealth
gave rise to Socialist
demands for political
and social reform,
and, with Marxist
theory, to a call for
revolution.
Teachers who discuss the Constitution of 1791 in the context of the French Revolution can
spend less time later in the course on liberalism and/or the development of socialism because
the larger concept of the relationship between social inequality and political revolution
will already have been treated in depth, enabling transfer of knowledge from one context to
another.
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In order for students to develop the full range of practices, skills, and understandings
needed for the AP European History course, teachers should provide time in their instruction
for classroom discussion and collaborative learning activities. Eective discussion and
collaboration go beyond summary and comprehension by requiring students to grapple with
others’ ideas as they formulate their own perspectives on an issue.
Table 1 denes and describes in general terms the purpose of several eective instructional
strategies. Table 2 is customized to AP European History and explains: (1) how the strategy can
be applied specically in the AP European History classroom and (2) how teachers can check
for student understanding and make connections across dierent topics throughout the course.
Strategy Denition Purpose
Socratic
Seminar
A focused discussion in
which students engage with
open-ended questions tied
to a specic topic or text.
For discussions focused on
a text, students should use
a variety of pre-, during-,
and after-reading strategies
in order to actively read
the text and prepare
for the discussion. The
discussion continues with
student responses and,
when needed, additional
open-ended questions that
allow students to express
their ideas and engage in
complex thinking.
To help students arrive at a new
understanding by asking questions that
clarify; challenge assumptions; probe
perspectives and point of view; probe
facts, reasons, and evidence; or examine
implications and outcomes.
Debate The presentation by two or
more groups of an informal
or formal argument that
defends a claim with
evidence. The goal is
to debate ideas without
attacking the people who
defend those ideas.
To provide students with an opportunity
to collect and orally present evidence
supporting the armative and negative
arguments of a proposition or issue.
Fishbowl Some students form an
inner circle and model
appropriate discussion
techniques, while an outer
circle of students listens,
responds, and evaluates.
To provide students with an opportunity
to engage in a formal discussion and to
experience the roles of both participant
and active listener; students also have the
responsibility of supporting their opinions
and responses using specic evidence.
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Strategy Denition Purpose
Shared
Inquiry
Students actively read a
provocative text, asking
interpretative questions
(questions for which there
are no predetermined right
answers) before and during
reading. After reading
the text, students engage
with their peers to make
meaning from the text,
oer dierent answers to
the questions, and debate
one another, supporting
their positions with specic
evidence from the text.
To allow a teacher to lead a deep discussion
of a text and encourage a diversity of ideas to
emerge as students think deeply and share
interpretations.
Discussion
Group
Students engage in an
interactive, small-group
discussion, often with
an assigned role (e.g.,
questioner, summarizer,
facilitator, evidence keeper),
to consider a topic, text,
question, etc.
To allow students to gain new understanding
of or insight into a text or issue by listening
to multiple perspectives.
Debrieng A facilitated discussion
that leads to consensus
understanding or helps
students identify the key
conclusions or takeaways.
To solidify and deepen student
understanding.
Jigsaw Each student in a group
actively reads a dierent
text or dierent passage
from a single text, taking
on the role of “expert” on
what was read. Students
should use both pre- and
during-reading strategies
to develop their expertise
on the text. After reading,
students share the
information from that
reading with students from
other groups who have read
the same text, then return
to their original groups to
share their new knowledge.
Each group then formulates
an answer to a common
question.
To have students summarize and present
information to others in a way that facilitates
an understanding of a text (or multiple texts)
or issue without having each student read the
text in its entirety; by teaching others, they
become experts.
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Strategy Denition Purpose
Questioning a
Text
Developing literal,
interpretive, and universal
questions about a text
before and during reading
it. Students should then
respond to the questions
during and after reading,
working with peers to
answer any remaining
questions.
To engage more actively with texts, read with
greater purpose and focus, and ultimately
answer questions to gain greater insight into
the text.
Table 2: Applying strategies to AP European History
Example AP European History Application
Checking for Student Understanding and
Making Connections
Socratic Seminar
This strategy can be used on a regular
basis or before summative assessments as
a tool to review previous instruction. For
example, after reading about the impact
of industrialization on everyday life (Key
Concept 3.2.III), the teacher can ask students
questions about what they have read, with
the goal of answering a larger question such
as how and why industrialization aected the
family, based on Learning Objective IS-2.
The teacher listens to the discussions to assess
how well students understand the key concept
and learning objective and then brings the
class back together as a whole for a guided
discussion about the reading. To begin the
discussion, the teacher can ask each group
what questions they found the most dicult to
answer, thus identifying areas that need further
attention. At the end of the discussion, the
teacher can ask students how this discussion
helps them develop a deeper understanding
of the poverty and prosperity theme by posing
a second question such as, “How has the
organization of society changed as a result of or
in response to the development and spread of
capitalism?” The teacher can use this second
question to see how well students are able to
link specic content to larger processes.
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Example AP European History Application
Checking for Student Understanding and
Making Connections
Debate
The teacher can use the learning objectives
to formulate a debate. Students could use
Learning Objective PP-5 (“Explain how
individuals, groups, and the state responded to
economic development over time.”) to debate
the extent to which the Reign of Terror‘s use
of extreme measures to address economic
inequality was justied (Key Concept 2.4.IV.C).
A variation on this approach involves using
the four corners of the room. In initial
discussion, the entire class could develop four
possible responses to the question posed; this
activity works especially well in identifying
causes of signicant events, such as the
causes of World War I. Each corner is labeled
with one of the responses and students are
tasked to go to the corner that best supports
their argument. Students are given 5 minutes
to organize an argument in defense of their
responses. A student representative from each
corner presents his or her argument and then
students are allowed to move to a dierent
corner if their opinions have changed. In
the next round, a student representative will
address why his or her group’s response is
the most signicant. A closure activity could
be the formulation of a thesis statement by
each student to express their argument.
At the conclusion of the debate, students
(and the teacher) can reect on the merits
of the arguments presented and identify
areas that needed more evidence or were
particularly persuasive. As students
suggest how arguments could have been
strengthened, the teacher can assess where
student knowledge of the key concept is
weak and ask how each side might have
used information from this key concept that
students did not include. The teacher can
then remind students of earlier instances
from the course that addressed this thematic
learning objective, such as peasant responses
to the commercialization of agriculture
(1.4.II.D), asking students to compare this
earlier instance to that discussed in the
debate. This activity can be used to assess
how well students are able to understand
how discrete events can be considered
evidence of a larger process.
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Example AP European History Application
Checking for Student Understanding and
Making Connections
Fishbowl
Students are given two texts related to
women’s roles from the Enlightenment: one
by Rousseau and one by Condorcet. Students
discuss the Enlightenment position on
women using evidence from the texts. Those
in the outer circle evaluate the evidence
used to support various positions in the
discussion.
The discussion of these texts focuses on
Key Concept 2.3.I, which is linked to Learning
Objective IS-5 (“Explain how identities such as
ethnicity, race, gender, religious aliation, and
class have aected the individual’s relationship
to society from 1450 to the present.”). The
exercise will allow the teacher to assess
students’ understanding of the Enlightenment
debate on women as they listen to students in
both the outer and inner ring. The teacher can
then place the discussion within the context
of Learning Objective IS-4 (“Explain how
and why the status of specic groups within
society has changed over time.”), asking
students to compare Enlightenment debates
with those of the Renaissance and Reformation
(Key Concepts 1.4.I and 1.4.IV). As students
make comparisons, the teacher can review
areas where student understanding is weak.
Shared Inquiry
The teacher provides a selection of primary
sources, such as writings by Rousseau,
Wollstonecraft, J. S. Mill, de Beauvoir, and
Punch cartoons and asks students to use the
content in Key Concept 4.4.II.B (“In Western
Europe through the eorts of feminists,
and in Eastern Europe and the Soviet
Union through government policy, women
nally gained the vote, greater educational
opportunities, and access to professional
careers, even while continuing to face social
inequalities.”) to choose a specic number
of these documents that they think best
address Learning Objective IS-5 (“Explain
how identities such as ethnicity, race, gender,
religious aliation, and class have aected
the individual’s relationship to society from
1450 to the present.”). Before having students
complete the task, either as homework or in
small groups, the teacher asks them what
they think the learning objective means and
claries any confusion. When students have
chosen their documents, they form small
groups based on the documents chosen.
Students formulate an answer to the learning
objective based on their choice of documents
and then present these answers.
After student presentations, the teacher
addresses issues that remain to be discussed;
for example, by reviewing a document
that few or no students chose to analyze.
The teacher then asks students how the
case study of women helps them address
Learning Objective IS-3 (“Explain how
and why tensions have arisen between the
individual and society over the course of
European history.”). Student responses
allow the teacher to assess how well
students understand this tension, and
the teacher can plan to reinforce and/or
strengthen this understanding in a future
lesson on post-1945 dissenting movements
(Key Concept 4.4.III).
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AP European History Instructional Approaches
Example AP European History Application
Checking for Student Understanding and
Making Connections
Discussion Group
The teacher organizes a discussion that
addresses Learning Objective OS-6
(“Explain how individualism, subjectivity,
and emotion came to be considered valid
sources of knowledge over time.”). The
teacher assigns groups to discuss images
of one or more modern art movements
from the late 19th and early 20th centuries,
such as Cubism, Futurism, or Surrealism
(Key Concept 4.3.IV.A). Students focus
on how the images are dierent from
Renaissance artworks discussed earlier in
the class (Key Concept 1.1.III.A).
After each group reports its ndings, the
teacher discusses aspects shared by all of
the modern images, focusing on how they
departed from existing aesthetic standards
as established in the Renaissance, explored
the subconscious, valued subjective
interpretations over objective representations,
and satirized the values of Western society
(Key Concept 4.3.IV.A). The teacher then
asks students to identify these elements in
the modern paintings they discussed. The
teacher prompts students to discuss context,
by asking how and why individualism,
subjectivity, and emotion came to be
considered valid sources of knowledge
(Learning Objective OS-6). By means of
this discussion, the teacher will be able
to assess how well students understand
Key Concept 4.3.IV.A as well as the larger
process of the shift from objective to
subjective visions of reality suggested in the
learning objective and the theme itself. After
the discussion, the teacher can have students
review needed material and plan to come
back to the learning objective in a lesson on
art after World War II focusing on Pop Art
and the inuence of the United States on
European culture (Learning Objective INT-5;
Key Concept 4.3.IV.C).
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Example AP European History Application
Checking for Student Understanding and
Making Connections
Debrieng
After completing a unit on the Soviet Union
and the Eastern bloc in the post–World
War II era (Key Concept 4.2.V), the teacher
asks students what policy or policies most
contributed to the fall of the Soviet Union.
The teacher uses the discussion to enhance
understanding of the key conclusions from the
unit of study, reinforcing important information
and reminding students of information they
might not have considered. At the end of the
discussion, the teacher discusses how the
collapse of the Soviet Union changed the
European and international balance of power
(Key Concepts 4.1.IV and 4.1.V; Learning
Objective SP-9) and asks students how this
shift in the balance of power was similar to
or dierent from that following World War I
(KeyConcept 4.1.II; Learning Objective SP-9).
The teacher can then highlight important
similarities and dierences in shifts of the
balance of power over time and nish by asking
students to write a paragraph explaining how
the day’s lesson helps them better understand
one of the learning objectives from the theme
States and other Institutions of Power, which
connects the two historical examples as parts
of a broader pattern. The teacher can read and
comment on the paragraphs to assess student
understanding and provide feedback to students.
Jigsaw
This exercise works well for complex
issues or issues with which students may
not engage well. For example, to address
Learning Objective OS-3 (“Explain how
traditional views of authority and forms
of knowledge coexisted with the scientic
method and reason.”) the teacher selects
and disseminates readings related to
Key Concept 3.3.II A, B, and C, dealing
with government responses to problems
created or exacerbated by industrialization.
Students are tasked to see how the evidence
and information from their readings helps to
eectively address the learning objective.
After the class has listened to all group
answers, the teacher reminds students that the
learning objective has two elements: reliance
on the scientic method and a challenge to
traditional authorities. The teacher asks the
class to specify which elements of the group
answers fall into each category, writing them
down in two separate groups, in a format that
can be viewed by and shared with the entire
class. The teacher can use this exercise to
reinforce important points and to address
information that students have neglected.
After this is completed, the teacher reminds
students of how scientic principles were
applied to society during the Enlightenment
(Key Concept 2.3.I) and asks them if the use of
these principles in response to industrialization
challenged the same traditional authorities and
in the same ways. The discussion can be used
as a means for the teacher to assess student
understanding of Key Concepts 3.3.II and 2.3.I,
and Learning Objective OS-5.
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AP European History Instructional Approaches
Example AP European History Application
Checking for Student Understanding and
Making Connections
Questioning a Text
The teacher assigns a text to be read by all
students, instructing them to write down any
questions that come to mind while reading
the text (e.g., questions that demand further
evidence, questions concerning information
that needs clarication, or questions that
would advance understanding through
discussion).
For example, to address Learning Objective
PP-1 (“Explain how capitalism has developed
as an economic system.”), the teacher
assigns a primary source text addressing
factory conditions in the early 19th century
(Key Concepts 3.3.I and 3.3.II). Students are
asked to come up with three questions about
the text. The teacher forms groups based
on similar questions and asks students to
research the answers in the textbook or in
another source.
Each group presents its ndings, after which
the teacher leads a discussion with the goal
of identifying the most important factors
behind the development of industrialization
(Learning Objectives PP-1 and PP-2).
Teachers can use the student presentations
as an opportunity to assess student
misunderstandings and use the discussion to
help students self-correct. At the end of the
discussion, the teacher can remind students
that some areas of Europe lagged behind in
industrialization (Learning Objective PP-2;
Key Concepts 3.2.V and 3.4.II.D) and ask
students why this was so. The discussion,
which will focus on what elements that
made rapid industrialization possible were
lacking in countries such as Russia, allows
the teacher to assess student understanding
of the learning objectives and identify areas
where review is needed.
Formative Assessment
Formative assessments are important in teaching the AP European History course because
they give teachers and students information about learning in order to enhance learning. This
information is vital for monitoring progress, deepening understanding, honing skills, and
improving achievement. It helps teachers adapt and tailor pedagogy to meet the needs of each
student and produce self-directed students. Formative assessment strategies help students
become aware of their strengths and challenges in learning and allow students to plan and
implement solutions to overcome diculties.
Formative assessments are often initiated and modeled by teachers, with the goal of having
students learn to self-evaluate and address their own learning needs. The steps of a formative
assessment include:
n
identifying a learning goal
n
monitoring progress toward the goal through observation, questioning, dialogue, record
keeping, and reection
n
providing feedback in response to the learning data collected
n
adjusting teaching and learning strategies to support achievement
Formative assessment, explained and guided by the instructor, develops students’
metacognitive abilities; students become aware of their own learning processes as they
develop historical knowledge and skills, enabling them to troubleshoot and address problems.
They become more independent and successful learners.
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The provided discussion-based instructional strategies chart embeds examples of formative
assessment that allow teachers to check for student understanding of specic issues.
Teachers might follow these activities with another formative assessment, such as an exit
slip, ungraded quiz, homework assignment, reection piece, or other type of written task. The
goal of the formative assessment is to provide targeted feedback about what students know
and understand to inform the learning process. Unlike summative assessments, formative
assessments may not result in a score or grade. Formative assessments are part of the
practice of learning, not an evaluation of the end result.
Feeling pressured to cover all the content, some teachers overemphasize direct instruction at
the expense of student-centered learning. Delivering content by way of lectures or textbook
readings typically renders students passive receptors of knowledge. Educational research
demonstrates that both the breadth and depth of student understanding is enhanced
signicantly by engaging students in authentic discipline-based tasks where students both
actuate and create knowledge, as opposed to passively receiving knowledge created by others.
This student-centered approach to learning is associated with a focus upon inquiry and an
instructional design that aligns the lesson and student investigation to a central historical
question—a question for the lesson that is nested within larger questions at the level of
the unit and the course. These questions are typically grounded in the practices and skills,
allowing for rich and varied practice of the reasoning used in the students’ investigations.
In response to a central historical question, students grapple with primary and secondary
sources to construct plausible arguments that evaluate the relative reliability and veracity of
their sources. In this inquiry-centered classroom, teachers might provide historical content or
context through direct forms of instruction, but the bulk of instructional time is allocated to
student investigation.
Project-based learning extends the notion of inquiry-based instruction by engaging students
in an investigation of a unit-level question that has them working independently or in groups
and the pacing of activities is dierentiated. Project-based learning in AP European History is
often associated with a focus upon problem solving that links past and present. Project-based
learning also provides opportunity for using simulations or posing counter-factual questions
in the AP European History classroom.
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AP European History Instructional Approaches
For some students, teachers may need to provide additional support at the beginning of the
year to foster development of the practices and skills required in an AP class. To support and
encourage these students, teachers should consider a variety of strategies to scaold and
sequence assignments and activities that will result in a gradual release from supported to
independent work over the course of the academic year. Such strategies may include:
n
modeling successful work
n
moving from simple to more complex tasks
n
note-taking skills
n
building eective reading skills
n
targeted practice and feedback
n
encouraging a mindset for success
In new assignments or in complex and rigorous tasks, teachers should model the process for
students and consider providing exemplar student work. A teacher who actively participates
in the assignment, activity, or thinking process along with the students can be a guide to
success and also articulate the meta-cognitive reection necessary to be successful. This type
of modeling and support before student work begins can be complemented after the task is
completed by sharing student work with the class. Typing up student responses or projecting
an image of student work to share with the entire class can provide valuable opportunities for
reection for students not only in response to the shared example but also to evaluate their
own work.
Because many performance tasks in an AP course are complex and require several steps of
analysis and evaluation, teachers should consider isolating particular skills and narrowing
the scope of particular tasks to allow students to master smaller skills rst. The aim is not to
sacrice rigor but to build capacity and allow time for students to learn the skills and content
necessary to be successful. Teachers might provide scaolding questions for documents
that point to a particular skill of analysis in the beginning of the year that would not be
included in later document analysis. Furthermore, starting with shorter passages and/or
using guiding questions can help direct analysis and comprehension. Providing a suggested
order or sequence of practices and skills to use for complex performance tasks might also
help students early in the year. Rather than assigning full-length homework or in-class
assignments at the start of an academic year, teachers might narrow the scope of the work.
Over time, as students grow, teachers can gradually release full responsibility to them.
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Especially in the beginning, teachers should pay particular attention to student
comprehension, whether students are working with primary sources, secondary sources,
the textbook, or other historical evidence. Annotating the reading or source, using either the
Cornell note-taking system or some other method, will help students keep focused and also
raise their own awareness of when they are not understanding an idea or passage. Directing
students to include related visual images or write follow-up questions can also help some
learners focus and retain information. Learning successful note-taking skills will not only aid
comprehension but also build understanding.
When working with any reading or source, teachers might consider providing shorter
passages at the beginning of the year. Taking more time to understand and analyze a shorter
passage can not only build condence but also build the skills needed for longer passages.
Teachers might also consider providing scaold questions for challenging readings. These
questions can help guide students and also help them utilize and reect on the type of
thinking necessary to analyze sources and establish patterns they can internalize and apply
independently. Over time, teachers can use less of these types of supports, but they can be
critical to building condence and skill capacity early in the course, especially with textbook
and secondary source readings.
When working with any reading, teachers might consider assigning questions with larger
themes and issues in mind to move students toward an awareness of how the source
information is relevant to understanding a larger historical question, process, or issue. For
visual evidence like a photograph or work of art, students can use techniques of observation
and analysis, such as dividing the picture into four quadrants and making observations, or
looking at details in the foreground and background. The goal is to ensure students notice
important details of a primary source in preparation for making larger interpretive claims.
Teachers should also consider the noncognitive dimension to teaching and learning when
working with younger AP students. What a teacher or student believes about how success
is achieved absolutely aects the learning process. Carol Dweck’s research on mindsets
(Mindset: The New Psychology of Success) lays an important foundation for teachers and
students to consider as students encounter new academic challenges. A teacher or student
with a growth mindset—a mindset for success—embraces challenges as new opportunities
to learn, makes concerted eorts to improve, and believes that a person’s ability and potential
is not xed or static but can grow over time. In a growth mindset, success is measured by
improvement rather than simply by achievement, and eort is the linchpin of success. This
way of thinking counters the self-defeating notions that ability is static and permanent, and
extra eort is useless because success is determined by innate ability or talent.
The messages that teachers send to students, along with all classroom practices, should
encourage students to take risks, make mistakes, learn, and grow. This culture of a
growth mindset is absolutely essential to success in an AP class where frustration and
discouragement can short-circuit the learning process. Teachers who can coach students
new to AP through such moments, and train them to see academic setbacks and “failure” as
stepping stones rather than stumbling blocks, can set students up for success.
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AP European History Instructional Approaches
AP European History Exam
Exam Overview
The AP European History Exam is 3 hours and 15 minutes long and includes both a
95-minute multiple-choice and short-answer section (Section I) and a 100-minute free-response
section (Section II). Each section is divided into two parts, as shown in the table below. Student
performance on these four parts will be compiled and weighted to determine an AP Exam score.
Section Question Type
Number of
Questions Timing
Percentage of
Total Exam Score
I
Part A: Multiple-choice
questions
Part B: Short-answer
questions
55 questions
3 questions
Required
Question 1:
1600–2001
w
Required
Question 2:
1600–2001
w
Choose
between
Question 3:
periods 1–2
OR
Question 4:
periods 3–4
w
55 minutes
40 minutes
40%
20%
II
Part A: Document-based
question
Part B: Long essay
question
1 question:
topics from
1600–2001
1 question,
chosen from
three options
on the same
theme:
period 1
w
periods 2–3
w
periods 3–4
w
60 minutes
(includes a
15-minute
reading period)
40 minutes
25%
15%
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Students need to learn to budget their time so that they can complete all parts of the
exam. Students will not be able to move on to Part B of Section I until the 55 minutes of
Part A are completed and their responses to the multiple-choice questions are collected.
Time management is especially critical with regard to Section II, which consists of two
essay questions. Students are given a 15-minute reading period and recommended time of
45 minutes of writing time for the document-based question and 40 minutes for the long essay
question, but students are not forced to move from the document-based question to the long
essay question. Students often benet from taking a practice exam under timed conditions
prior to the actual administration.
Assessed on the AP Exam
Each AP Exam question measures students’ ability to apply historical practices and reasoning
skills to one or more of the thematic learning objectives. Student understanding of course
content is assessed on the AP Exam in one of two ways. First, multiple-choice questions
expect that students are familiar enough with the concept statements in each period of
European history to be able to answer questions about related primary and secondary source
material. Second, all free-response questions reward students for accurately explaining the
historical content their local curriculum prioritized for each concept statement.
The wording of each concept statement gives teachers the exibility to select specic
historical content for use in helping students develop mastery. AP Exam questions do not
require that all students know the same example for a given concept statement, so teachers
can focus on teaching one example of that concept well, rather than many examples
supercially.
It is the nature of history as a discipline that individual statements are open to dierences
of interpretation. Like all historical claims, the statements in the concept outline should be
examined in light of primary sources and evidence as well as historical research. Teachers
can help students examine these concepts as claims, based on current scholarship about
European history, similar to those typically analyzed in a college-level survey course.
Teachers may wish to use dierences of interpretation as opportunities for student analysis of
multiple perspectives.
In addition, the following list describes the relationship between the components of the
course framework and the AP Exam questions:
n
The coverage of the periods in the exam as a whole will reect the approximate period
weightings (see page 43).
n
Document-based and long essay questions may span more than one period, requiring
students to address events or documents from multiple periods of the course.
n
Students’ understanding of all themes and periods of European history will be assessed on
the exam. The periods and skills that can be addressed in dierent sections of the exam are
discussed in the descriptions of each question type that follow.
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AP European History Exam
Exam Components
Multiple-Choice Questions
Section I, Part A of the AP Exam consists of 55 multiple-choice questions that are organized into
sets of between two to ve questions each. The questions in each set ask students to respond to
a primary or secondary source, such as written texts, images, charts, graphs, or maps, reecting
the types of material that historians use in studying the past. Multiple-choice questions assess
students’ ability to reason about this source material in tandem with their knowledge of content
required by the course. The possible answers for a multiple-choice question reect the level of detail
present in the required historical developments found in the concept outline for the course. While
a set may focus on one particular period of European history, the individual questions within that
set may ask students to make connections to thematically linked developments in other periods.
Short-Answer Questions
Section I, Part B of the AP European History Exam consists of four short-answer questions.
Students are required to answer the rst and second questions and then answer either the
third or the fourth question.
n
The rst question primarily assesses the practice of analyzing secondary sources, asking
students to respond in writing to a historian’s argument. This question addresses content
from 1600 to 2001.
n
The second question primarily assesses either the skill of causation or continuity and change
over time, and ask students to respond in writing to a primary source written text or to visual
sources such as images, charts, or maps. This question also addresses content from 1600 to 2001.
n
Students choose to answer either the third or the fourth short-answer questions, which
deal with periods 1–2 and 3–4, respectively. The third and fourth questions ask students to
respond in writing to general propositions about European History, and primarily assess
the same skill, either causation or continuity and change over time: neither question will
assess the same skill as the second short-answer question.
Each short-answer question asks students to describe examples of historical evidence
relevant to the question; these examples can be drawn from the concept outline or from other
examples explored in depth during classroom instruction.
Short-Answer
Questions Primary Practice or Skill Assessed Source Type
Periods
Assessed
Students are required to answer short-answer question 1 AND short-answer question 2
1 Analyzing Secondary Sources Secondary source 1600–2001
2 Causation or Continuity and Change
over Time
Primary source text
or visual source
1600–2001
Students select short-answer question 3 OR short-answer question 4
3 Causation or Continuity and Change
over Time (Dierent skill from short-
answer question 2)
No stimulus Periods 1–2
4 Periods 3–4
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Section II, Part A of the AP Exam consists of the document-based question—an essay
question that measures students’ ability to develop and support an argument using historical
source material as evidence. The question focuses on topics from 1600 to 2001. The seven
documents included in the document-based question may include charts, graphs, cartoons,
and pictures, as well as written materials of varying length. These are chosen to illustrate
interactions and complexities about the historical topic that is the subject of the question.
In their responses, students should develop an argument about the question and utilize the
documents to support this argument. Students should also explain elements of the authorship
of the documents that aect their historical signicance, such as point of view, purpose,
historical situation, and/or audience. The document-based question also requires students to
relate the documents to a historical period or theme and, thus, to focus on major periods and
issues. For this reason, other knowledge about the topic being assessed, beyond the specic
focus of the documents, is important and must be incorporated into students’ essays to earn
the highest scores.
Section II, Part B of the AP Exam consists of a choice among three long essay questions
about major topics from dierent time spans of the course.
n
Students choose one of the three long essay questions, which deal with period 1,
periods 2–3, and periods 3–4 of the course, respectively.
n
The three question options all address the same theme and assess the same
reasoning skill.
In order to receive the highest scores, students must develop an argument and support it with
an analysis of specic, relevant historical evidence of their choosing. Long essay questions
ask about large-scale topics specically mentioned in the concept outline, but they are framed
to allow students to provide in-depth discussion of specic examples drawn from the concept
outline or from classroom instruction.
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AP European History Exam
Practice Exam
After the practice exam you will nd a table that shows which key concepts, learning
objectives, and primary practice or skill is assessed in each question. The table also provides
the answers to the multiple-choice questions.
As demonstrated in the following section, question sets will be organized around two to ve
questions that focus on a primary or secondary source.
Questions 1–4 refer to the passage below.
“Assume, O men of the German lands, that ancient spirit of yours with which you so oen
confounded and terried the Romans and turn your eyes to the frontiers of Germany;
collect her torn and broken territories. Let us be ashamed, ashamed I say, to have placed
upon our nation the yoke of slavery. . . . O free and powerful people, O noble and valiant
race. . . . To such an extent are we corrupted by Italian sensuality and by erce cruelty
in extracting lthy prot that it would have been far more holy and reverent for us to
practice that rude and rustic life of old, living within the bounds of self-control, than to
have imported the paraphernalia of sensuality and greed which are never sated, and to
have adopted foreign customs.”
Conrad Celtis, oration delivered at the University of Ingolstadt, 1492
1. e passage above most clearly shows the inuence of which of the following trends in
eenth-century Europe?
(A) e development of natural philosophy based on inductive and deductive reasoning
(B) e revival of classical learning and the development of Northern humanism
(C) e continued reliance on traditional supernatural explanations of the world
(D) e development of Baroque dramatic forms to enhance the stature of elites
2. Celtis’ discussion of Italian inuence in the German lands is most similar to which of
the following?
(A) Machiavelli’s criticism of Italian political systems in e Prince
(B) Galileo’s science-based inquiries that threatened the authority of Catholic world
views
(C) Erasmus’ arguments in favor of religious toleration and criticizing traditional
superstitions
(D) Martin Luther’s criticisms of the Catholic Church in his Ninety-ve eses
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3. e political condition of Germany described in the passage did not change until
(A) 1789
(B) 1815
(C) 1871
(D) 1945
4. Which of the following groups in the nineteenth century would most likely have agreed
with the sentiments in the passage?
(A) Industrial capitalists
(B) Radical anarchists
(C) Romantic nationalists
(D) Utopian socialists
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AP European History Exam
Questions 5–8 refer to the passage below.
“Anno Domini 1618, a great comet appeared in November. To see the thing was terrible
and strange, and it moved me and changed my disposition so that I started to write,
because I thought that it meant something big would occur, as then really did happen. . . .
Anno Domini 1619, Ferdinand became the Holy Roman Emperor, under whom a great
persecution happened through war, unrest, and the spilling of the blood of Christians. . . .
First, he started a big war in Bohemia, which he then oppressed and subjugated under
his religion, then almost the whole of Germany was conquered, all of which I can hardly
describe and explain.”
Hans Herberle, shoemaker in Ulm, southern Germany,
personal chronicle compiled in the 1630s
5. e conict that Herberle describes in his chronicle resulted in which of the following?
(A) e establishment of several religiously pluralistic and tolerant states within the
German-speaking regions
(B) e weakening of the Holy Roman Empire and the strengthening of smaller
sovereign states within its boundaries
(C) e virtual extinction of all Christian denominations except Lutheranism and
Roman Catholicism within the German-speaking regions
(D) e political unication of most of the German-speaking regions under a
Protestant, rather than a Catholic monarch
6. Based on the passage, which of the following can be safely inferred about Herberle’s
religious aliation?
(A) He was a member of a Lutheran church.
(B) He was a member of a Calvinist church.
(C) He was not a member of any established church.
(D) He was not Roman Catholic.
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7. A historian could best use Herberle’s discussion of the comet as evidence for which of
the following features of early modern intellectual life?
(A) e diusion of new scientic knowledge in the general population of Europe
(B) e continued popularity of astrology among members of the elite
(C) e persistence of a traditional view of the world as governed by supernatural
forces
(D) e growing tension between religious and scientic explanations of natural
phenomena
8. e ability of someone of Herberle’s social status in seventeenth-century Germany to
read and write was most likely the result of which of the following?
(A) e diusion of Renaissance humanist ideas to areas outside Italy
(B) e Protestant Reformation’s emphasis on individual study of the Bible
(C) e establishment of mandatory systems of national education
(D) e growth of representative forms of government as alternatives to absolutism
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AP European History Exam
Questions 9–12 refer to the passage below.
“e Natives of New-Holland may appear to some to be the most wretched people upon
Earth, but in reality they are far happier than we Europeans; being wholly unacquainted
not only with the superuous but the necessary Conveniencies so much sought aer in
Europe, they are happy in not knowing the use of them. ey live in a Tranquility which
is not disturbed by the Inequality of Condition: e Earth and sea of their own accord
furnishes them with all things necessary for life, they covet not Magnicent Houses,
Household-stu, etc., they live in a warm and ne Climate and enjoy a very wholesome
Air, so that they have very little need of Clothing. . . . Many to whom we gave Cloth le it
carelessly upon the beach and in the woods as a thing they had no manner of use for. In
short they seemed to set no Value upon any thing we gave them, nor would they ever part
with any thing of their own for any one article we could oer them; this in my opinion
argues that they think themselves provided with all the necessaries of Life and that they
have no superuities.”
James Cook, British naval ocer, describing the inhabitants of Australia, 1770
9. Accounts of non-European peoples similar to Cook’s portrayal of the inhabitants of
Australia contributed most directly to the development of which of the following?
(A) Romanticism
(B) Enlightenment rationalism
(C) Positivism
(D) Nationalism
10. Compared to Cook’s portrayal of the inhabitants of Australia in the late eighteenth
century, the predominant European view of non-European peoples in the
late nineteenth century had changed in which of the following ways?
(A) Europeans in the late nineteenth century tended to view less structured and
hierarchical societies as more desirable political models.
(B) Europeans in the late nineteenth century tended to view lack of technological
development as evidence of cultural inferiority.
(C) Europeans in the late nineteenth century tended to view economically undeveloped
societies as fairer and more just.
(D) Europeans in the late nineteenth century tended to view climate as less signicant
than other factors in determining social development.
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11. Cook’s observations concerning the material culture of the inhabitants of Australia
most clearly reect the inuence of which of the following developments in Europe?
(A) e decline in power of the landed aristocracy relative to commercial elites
(B) e increase in agricultural productivity known as the Agricultural Revolution
(C) Protestant reaction against ornate forms of decoration and religious imagery
(D) e expanded availability and use of consumer goods
12. Cook’s voyages were primarily a result of which of the following eighteenth-century
developments?
(A) Competition among European powers to create commercial empires
(B) Rivalries between Catholic and Protestant countries to gain converts overseas
(C) Private support for scientic exploration
(D) Eorts to secure new sources of labor for industrialization
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AP European History Exam
Questions 13–15 refer to the song lyrics below.
“To Versailles like bragging lads
We brought with us all our guns
We had to show, though we were but women, A courage that no one can reproach us for.
Now we won’t have to go so far
When we want to see our King.
We love him with a love without equal, Since he’s come to live in our Capital.”
Song of the poissardes (Paris market women), October 1789
13. e events referred to in the song led most directly to which of the following?
(A) e formalization of a constitutional monarchy in France
(B) e creation of a republican government in France
(C) e installation of Napoleon as Emperor of the French
(D) e restoration of the Bourbon monarchy
14. e poissardes and other participants in the events described in the song were
motivated most strongly by which of the following?
(A) An economic crisis brought about by food shortages
(B) e desire to institute free-market principles in the French economy
(C) e failure of France to gain substantial advantages from its wars with Britain
(D) e fear that Enlightenment ideas about government would undermine the basis of
monarchy
15. e participation of women such as the poissardes led to which of the following during
the early phases of the French Revolution?
(A) Wage equality for women
(B) Permanent legal equality for women, but no political rights
(C) Temporary improvements in women’s legal status
(D) Loss of rights previously held by women
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Questions 16–18 refer to the map below.
Beemsterlants Caerte by Daniel van Breen. Courtesy of the Zuiderzee Museum.
Above is a 1664 map of a 28-square-mile polder, an example of farmland reclaimed from wetlands in the Netherlands
during the seventeenth century. The square grid represents intersecting roads and drainage canals; the rectangular
strips represent individual family landholdings.
16. Infrastructure projects such as the one depicted on the map are best understood in the
context of which of the following?
(A) e diusion of new agricultural technology from European overseas colonies
(B) e negative impact of the reimposition of serfdom on agricultural productivity
(C) e intensication of agricultural production in response to the development of a
market economy
(D) e continued importance of hierarchy and status in rural European society
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AP European History Exam
17. By the mid-eighteenth century, developments in agriculture similar to the ones
reected in the map led to which of the following in some parts of western Europe?
(A) Rural overpopulation and migration to the cities
(B) An intensication of the pattern of Malthusian demographic cycles
(C) e decline of patriarchy and the adoption of more egalitarian gender roles among
the peasantry
(D) e emergence of a new pattern of delaying marriage and childbirth as a means to
limit rural birthrates
18. In addition to new patterns of landownership and land use, which of the following
factors had the greatest impact on western European agriculture in the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries?
(A) e beginning of the cooling period known as the Little Ice Age
(B) e increasing cultivation of new crops brought from the Americas
(C) e increasing use of synthetic chemical fertilizers
(D) e increasing use of steam engine technology in agriculture
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Questions 19–22 refer to the passage below.
“e purpose of the geography curriculum was to come to know the narrower and
broader Fatherland and to awaken one’s love of it. . . . From [merely learning the names
of] the many rivers and mountains one will not see all the Serbian lands, not even the
heroic and unfortunate eld of Kosovo [on which the Ottomans defeated the Serbs in
1389]; from the many rivers and mountains children do not see that there are more Serbs
living outside Serbia than in Serbia; they do not see that Serbia is surrounded on all sides
by Serbian lands; from the many mountains and rivers we do not see that, were it not for
the surrounding Serbs, Serbia would be a small island that foreign waves would quickly
inundate and destroy; and, if there were no Serbia, the remainder of Serbdom would feel
as though it did not have a heart.”
Report to the Serbian Teachers’ Association, 1911–1912
19. e report best reects which of the following goals of public education systems in the
period before the First World War?
(A) Heightening awareness of the dangers of international conict
(B) Greater appreciation of the Ottoman legacy in the Balkans
(C) Training bureaucrats for imperial posts
(D) Instilling feelings of nationalism
20. e conditions referred to in the report were most directly a result of which of the
following developments?
(A) e transformation of the Habsburg Empire into the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary
(B) e emergence of new Balkan states as the Ottoman Empire declined
(C) e growth of international tensions following Bismarck’s dismissal as chancellor
of Germany
(D) e increase of economic competition between imperial powers for industrial
resources
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AP European History Exam
21. Sentiments similar to those expressed in the report most directly contributed to which
of the following developments in the late twentieth century?
(A) e development of the European Union during the Cold War
(B) e development of COMECON in Eastern Europe
(C) Ethnic conict aer the collapse of communism
(D) e move by European nations to relinquish their colonies
22. In the interwar period, educators in which of the following countries would most likely
have had a view of geography education similar to that expressed in the passage?
(A) Germany
(B) Great Britain
(C) France
(D) e Soviet Union
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Questions 23–26 refer to the passage below.
“Twentieth-century Fascism is a byproduct of disintegrating liberal democracy. Loss of
hope in the possibilities of existing order and society, disgust with their corruption and
ineectiveness, above all the society’s evident loss of condence in itself, all these produce
or spur a revolutionary mood in which the only issue lies in catastrophic action—but
always with a strong social tinge: ‘I place my only hope in the continuation of socialist
progress through fascisms,’ writes Drieu [a French Fascist author of the 1930s]. And the
editor of the French Fascist publication, the Insurgent, Jean-Pierre Maxence, would call
for insurgents of all parties to join ‘the front of united youth, for bread, for grandeur and
for liberty, in immense disgust with capitalist democracy.’ From this angle, as from many
others, Fascism looks very much like the Jacobinism of our time.”
Eugen Weber, historian, Varieties of Fascism, 1964
23. Which of the following features of the French Revolution would best support Weber’s
argument comparing Fascism to Jacobinism?
(A) e passage of laws ending the hereditary privileges of the nobility
(B) Napoleon’s seizure of power from the Directory
(C) e wars to protect Revolutionary France from foreign invasion
(D) e economic price and wage controls imposed during the Reign of Terror
24. Weber’s argument linking Fascism and Jacobinism implies that he was inuenced by
which of the following?
(A) Marxist materialist analysis of social change and historical development
(B) Social Darwinist belief in the importance of struggle in historical progress
(C) Positivist emphasis on the role of technology in shaping human aairs
(D) Post-modernist subjectivist critiques of the ethos of western society
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25. Which of the following would most contradict Weber’s thesis concerning the
fundamental character of Fascism?
(A) Mussolini’s membership in the Italian Socialist Party prior to founding the Italian
Fascist movement
(B) e spread of Fascism to eastern European countries in the 1930s
(C) e growth of National Socialism in Germany during the economic crisis of the
early 1930s
(D) Franco’s support for traditional Catholic values in his Spanish Fascist movement
26. Which of the following would best explain the appeal of Fascism in France alluded to
in the passage?
(A) e French alliance with Italy during the First World War
(B) Political instability in France aer the First World War
(C) Lingering anti-Semitism in France in the aermath of the Dreyfus aair
(D) e incorporation of Alsace into France aer the First World War
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Questions 27–29 refer to the 1950 poster, shown below, created by the French
Communist Party.
TRANSLATION: “No, France will not be a colonized country! Americans stay in America!”
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27. e attitude exemplied by the poster was likely LEAST inuenced by which of the
following?
(A) Soviet inuence over Western European communist parties during the Cold War
(B) e Marshall Plan
(C) e creation of NATO
(D) e creation of the United Nations
28. e creators of the poster also likely opposed which of the following?
(A) Greater involvement of women in politics and education
(B) e expansion of social welfare programs
(C) e continued French government of Algeria
(D) e expansion of Soviet economic inuence in Eastern Europe
29. e political sentiment expressed in the poster would have the greatest inuence on
which of the following?
(A) e collapse of the Soviet Union
(B) e development of the European Union
(C) e increase in the number of migrant laborers in Western Europe
(D) e student rebellions of 1968
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Questions 30–32 refer to the passages from religious texts below.
“No matter how learned a woman may be, silence her in matters of faith and the Church.
For it is certain what the ancients said, that which makes a woman prettiest is silence on
her lips for all conversation, and particularly for the mysteries of holiness and so she is not
to be a teacher of the doctrine of the Sacred Scriptures.”
Fernando Valdés, Spain, 1537
“It pleased our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. . . being free from original and all other sins,
from the time of his conception till the hour of his death, to be begotten of a woman, born
of a woman, nourished of a woman, obedient to a woman; and that he healed women,
pardoned women, comforted women. . . and aer his resurrection appeared rst to a
woman, and sent a woman to declare his most glorious resurrection to the rest of his
Disciples.”
Emilia Lanier, England, 1611
30. e passages are best understood in the context of which of the following?
(A) e humanist debate over education and the rights of women
(B) e debate over the role of women in society prompted by the Reformation
(C) e wars between Spain and England during the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries
(D) e revival of the study of classical texts
31. Valdés’ argument reects which of the following developments of this period?
(A) e concern over women’s emigration to the New World
(B) e armation by the Roman Catholic Church hierarchy of women’s
subordination in matters of religion
(C) e Renaissance humanist revival of Greek and Roman attitudes towards women
(D) e growing popularity of monasticism for Catholic women
32. Lanier’s publication of an argument for increased respect for women was made possible
by which of the following?
(A) e spread of literacy and personal engagement with religious texts
(B) Elizabeth I’s use of magisterial religious authority on behalf of women
(C) e opening of clerical positions to women
(D) New scientic writings that challenged classical learning
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Questions 33–36 refer to the graph below.
SEED YIELDS* FOR WHEAT AND BARLEY, 1600-1850
1600
Year
17001650 1750 1800
5
10
Seed Yields for Wheat and Barley
Great Britain and the Low Countries
France, Spain, and Italy
Central Europe and Scandinavia
Eastern Europe
Source: Adapted from Norman J. G. Pounds, A Historical Geography of Europe, Volume II: 1500-1840, Cambridge
University Press, 1979, p. 182.
*Seed yield (or crop yield) is the number of grain seeds harvested for each seed sown.
33. e patterns shown on the graph most directly contributed to which of the following?
(A) e increasing number of Europeans emigrating to the Americas
(B) e early industrialization of Britain and the Low Countries
(C) e large size of France’s population
(D) e increasing importance of eastern Europe as a grain exporter
34. In the late 1700s and early 1800s, liberal political economists in western Europe used
information similar to the data shown in the graph to argue that
(A) governments should require landholders to make agricultural improvements
(B) the export of food crops and other agricultural products should be restricted
(C) agricultural work had moral and physical benets that were superior to those of
industrial labor
(D) abolition of common agricultural land holdings would result in greater agricultural
productivity
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35. Apart from the changes in seed yield shown on the graph above, which of the following
most directly aected Europe’s ability to feed itself in the period 1600-1800?
(A) e creation of large cash-crop plantations in the Americas
(B) e cultivation of New World crops in Europe
(C) e widespread mechanization of agriculture
(D) e decreasing tendency of armies to target civilian populations during wartime
36. Based on the information in the graph, which of the following regions was most likely
to avoid the Malthusian trap concerning food supply and population?
(A) Great Britain and the Low Countries
(B) France, Spain, and Italy
(C) Central Europe and Scandinavia
(D) Eastern Europe
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AP European History Exam
Questions 37–39 refer to the political cartoon below.
“Border Embarrassment,” cartoon published in a German newspaper, 1834.
Photo Credit: bpk, Berlin/Art Resource, NY
The cartoon shows adjacent entry and exit border crossings of Lippe-Schaumberg, one of the
small states in northwestern Germany.
Cartoon caption: “You see, Mr. Border Ocial, that I have nothing to declare, because what’s in
the back of the cart has not yet crossed Lippe’s border, there is nothing in the middle, and what’s
in the front of the cart has already cleared Lippe’s border.”
37. At the time of the cartoon’s publication, the political conditions referred to had been
most recently rearmed by
(A) the French Revolution
(B) the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire by Napoleon
(C) the settlement at the Congress of Vienna
(D) the July Revolution of 1830
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38. Which of the following conclusions is best supported by the cartoon?
(A) German liberals regarded the status quo in the German states as an obstacle to
progress.
(B) German conservatives were largely caught o guard by the outbreak of the
Revolutions of 1848.
(C) ere was a strong resentment against Schaumburg-Lippe and the other small
German states among people living in the larger German states, such as Prussia
and Bavaria.
(D) Regional, local, and state-specic loyalties made the emergence of a common
German identity impossible.
39. Which of the following developments in nineteenth-century German history was most
directly a response to the concerns expressed in the cartoon?
(A) e establishment of social welfare legislation providing old-age and disability
pensions for workers
(B) e creation of the Zollverein, a customs union under Prussian leadership, which
facilitated trade and hastened industrialization
(C) e Prussian government’s support for the creation of an extensive rail network in
German states
(D) e persistence of primitive agricultural practices and landowning patterns in
some parts of the German lands
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Questions 40–43 refer to the passage below.
“First, the natives of India, so far as I have seen, and speaking generally, are barbarians. It
is necessary that you should have special care for all your sons of the Jesuit Order in India
in commending them to God our Lord continually, for you know what a great toil it is to
have to do with people who through their very habitual evil living neither know God nor
obey reason. . . .
I see clearly, my only Father, by my experience here, that no road is opening for the
perpetuation of the Jesuit Order among the natives. Christianity will last among them
only as long as we who are here or those whom you will send from Europe will last and
live. . . .
e Portuguese here control only the sea and the places on the seashore, and so they are
not masters [in the interior] but only in the places where they live. e native Indians are
not at all inclined to the things of [Christianity] but rather abhor them greatly. It irks them
mortally when we speak to them and ask them to become Christians.”
Francis Xavier, Spanish Jesuit priest in India, letter to Ignatius Loyola, head of the
Society of Jesus, 1549
40. e Portuguese presence in India most directly resulted from which of the following?
(A) e desire to obtain greater access to precious metals and luxury goods
(B) e desire to secure a supply of labor for expanding manufacturing in Europe
(C) e desire to create new plantations for the production of cash crops
(D) e desire to establish new markets for European manufactured goods
41. Xavier’s views in the second paragraph support which of the following conclusions
about the period 1450–1648?
(A) Christianization eorts were more successful in Asia than in the Americas.
(B) Christianization was used to justify the African slave trade.
(C) Christianization was generally in conict with mercantilist policies.
(D) Christianization both depended on and legitimized European colonial expansion.
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42. Xavier’s views of indigenous populations as expressed in the passage were most
similar to views commonly held by late-nineteenth-century Europeans in which of the
following ways?
(A) Both views reected a fear of native inuences on Christianity.
(B) Both views reected a sense of admiration for foreign cultures.
(C) Both views reected a sense of cultural superiority.
(D) Both views reected a sense of moral ambiguity concerning colonization.
43. e religious order of which Xavier was a member was important in the history of
sixteenth-century Europe primarily because it
(A) challenged Protestant teachings and helped revive the Church during the Catholic
Reformation
(B) studied Greek and Roman texts but challenged secular values in Renaissance
humanism
(C) ensured that Catholic institutions remained outside monarchical control
(D) revived universities in eastern Europe
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Questions 44–46 refer to the poem below. Questions 44–46 refer to the passage below.
“e foundations of old knowledge have collapsed.
Wise men have probed the depths of the earth;
Treasures of buried strata furnish the proofs of creation.
[Religion] is no longer the apex of fulllment for the intelligent.
Atlas does not hold up the earth, nor is Aphrodite divine;
Plato’s wisdom cannot explain the principles of evolution.
‘Amr is no slave of Zayd, nor is Zayd ‘Amr’s master *—
Law depends upon the principle of equality.
Neither the fame of Arabia, nor the glory of Cairo remains.
is is the time for progress; the world is a world of science;
Is it possible to maintain society in ignorance?”
Sâdullah Pasha, Ottoman intellectual, e Nineteenth Century, poem, 1878
* Zayd and ‘Amr are Muslim names traditionally used in Islamic legal opinions in the generic sense of
“John Doe 1” and “John Doe 2.”
44. Based on the poem, it can be inferred that Sâdullah Pasha was most inuenced by
which of the following?
(A) Social Darwinism
(B) Positivism
(C) Romantic nationalism
(D) Abolitionism
45. e last three lines of the poem best illustrate which of the following aspects of
Europe’s relationship with the rest of the world in the late nineteenth century?
(A) European imperial encroachments provoked a cultural backlash and a rejection of
Western values in many areas of Africa and Asia.
(B) Colonial subjects began organizing politically to overthrow European rule.
(C) Many countries were made dependent on Europe economically and politically
through treaties and trade agreements.
(D) Adoption of Western ideas caused many non-Western peoples to call for the
modernization of their own societies and states.
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46. By the 1920s and 1930s, the ideas concerning science and progress reected in the
poem underwent which of the following transformations?
(A) e ideas were largely rejected by non-Western leaders as incompatible with
indigenous norms and cultures.
(B) e ideas were largely supplanted by a revival of religious sentiment in the wake of
the First World War.
(C) e ideas came to be regarded with suspicion by many European intellectuals in
the light of subsequent scientic discoveries and political events.
(D) e ideas were regarded with increasing hostility by European intellectuals in the
wake of growing anticolonial movements in Asia and Africa.
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Questions 47–49 refer to the following passage.
“To Commissar Lenin, Chairman of the Russian Socialist Republic:
We middle- and poor-peasant laborers have never been either bourgeois or speculator-
proteers, or drunkards, or pickpockets, or lazybones-parasites of the upper class. . . .
[e Bolshevik provincial authorities] have not tried to raise and improve the working
level of the people. All they do is extort, rob, and take away what has been amassed by our
hard and persistent labor and thri. Let’s take for example some families in the village:
the rst one is the Kulikhins, who have three plots of land and seven healthy, strong men;
they abandoned their land and house and wander around and beg. Another family—the
Obraztsovas—is a woman who has young children and old folks to take care of; yet she
plows the land herself and takes care of everything else. And now it turns out that that the
Kulikhins are considered poor peasants [and are protected by the Bolsheviks], while the
Obraztsovas are classied as bourgeois: grain and livestock were taken from them and
the authorities imposed on them heavy requisitions and taxes. And so the poor lazybones
grow richer than the rest of us a thousand times. e wealth of the peasant is accumulated
through thri. So where is justice? ere is no such thing.”
Petition from peasants from the Vologda region, Russia, 1920
47. e petition best supports which of the following conclusions?
(A) Most Russian peasants opposed the Bolshevik Revolution and supported the
Whites in the Russian Civil War.
(B) Peasant notions of social status and social hierarchy were at odds with Bolshevik
notions of class formation and class consciousness.
(C) ere was a large surplus of arable land in the Russian countryside that was not
being cultivated.
(D) Despite the revolution, peasant ideas of ethical living and proper behavior were
still deeply inuenced by Christian teachings.
48. Which of the following was most directly a cause of the inequalities in land ownership
among the Russian peasantry referred to by the petitioners?
(A) Peter the Great’s westernizing reforms
(B) e abolition of serfdom
(C) e Revolution of 1905
(D) Lenin’s New Economic Policy
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49. e Bolshevik policies decried by the petitioners in the passage would be carried to
their logical conclusion in which later Soviet policy?
(A) e policy of allowing limited private market activity under the New Economic
Policy
(B) e policy of rapid industrialization under the Five Year Plans
(C) e policy of liquidating the kulaks as a class and the formation of collective farms
(D) e policy of mass incarceration of political opponents in the Gulag
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Questions 50–52 refer to the painting below.
© 2013 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / VG Bild-Kunst, Bonnbpk, Berlin / Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich,
Germany / Art Resource, NY
50. e painting is an example of which of the following developments in modernist
European art?
(A) Artists’ turn to dreams and the subconscious as a source of inspiration
(B) Artists’ abandonment of realistic representation in order to convey internal
emotional states
(C) Artists’ glorication of technological progress in the machine age
(D) Artists’ exploration of non-European cultures as a source of ne w subject matters
and styles
51. e situation of war veterans such as those depicted in the image was most eectively
used to sway public opinion during the interwar period by which of the following
groups in Germany?
(A) Right-wing nationalists critical of government ineectiveness
(B) Pacists wishing to illustrate the horrors of modern warfare
(C) Social Darwinists seeking to illustrate their belief in survival of the ttest
(D) Leists seeking to show how the working classes were oppressed through military
recruitment
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52. Otto Dix’s painting is part of the cultural context of
(A) the dislocation and pessimism of the “lost generation”
(B) Christian churches’ response to totalitarianism
(C) a condence in technology’s ability to x society’s problems
(D) a return to traditional modes of artistic expression
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Questions 53–55 refer to the passage below.
“Interrogator: Do you believe that the imperialist states and their agencies are not
interested in weakening and undermining the Soviet regime but in strengthening it? Is
that how we must interpret you?
Yuri Orlov: As is well known, my documents have been used in the West by those
progressive forces whose criticism has clearly improved certain aspects of human rights
in the Soviet Union. I have in mind statements by communists in France, Italy, and [other
countries]. . . . One must bear in mind that even criticism from hostile forces can be useful
for a regime. For example, criticism of capitalism by the Soviet Union has undoubtedly
strengthened that system and prolonged its existence. However, I did not appeal to hostile
forces [in the West], but either to the international public as a whole, or to le-wingers,
including communists. . . . ”
Interrogation record of Soviet physicist and dissident Yuri Orlov, accused of
supplying documents to Western human rights’ groups, conducted by the KGB,
December 29, 1977
53. e interrogator’s reference to “imperialist states” is best understood in the context of
which of the following?
(A) Decolonization following the conclusion of the Second World War
(B) e distribution of German colonies to Britain and France through the mandate
system
(C) e emergence of fascist states in Western Europe
(D) Ideological conicts associated with the Cold War
54. e interrogation recorded in the passage best demonstrates continuity with which of
the following?
(A) Stalin’s program of economic centralization
(B) Lenin’s free-market reforms associated with the New Economic Policy
(C) Khrushchev’s de-Stalinization policies
(D) Stalin’s policies toward political opponents
55. e Soviet regime’s approach to dissent as exemplied in the passage would be most
signicantly changed as a result of which of the following?
(A) e increase of diplomatic pressure from the United Nations
(B) e resurgence of ethnic instability in Central and Eastern Europe
(C) e implementation of Gorbachev’s policies of perestroika and glasnost
(D) e period of growth in Western Europe known as the “economic miracle”
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There are four short-answer questions on the exam. Students answer Question 1 and
Question 2. They then choose to answer either Question 3 or Question 4. Note that the short-
answer questions do not require students to develop and support a thesis statement.
Use the passage below to answer all parts of the question that follows.
“It must never be forgotten that, in so far as their voices can be heard at all, the common
people of Europe [under Napoleon’s empire] had dierent priorities and preoccupations
from those of the propertied classes. eirs had not been ‘the empire of the professionals,’
but of the recruiting sergeant and the canceled Holy Day. Napoleonic rule le very
deep scars in the body of Europe, all the more profound for being less tangible than
the ideological divisions within the educated, propertied elites. . . . e struggle against
Napoleon was one of diversity against standardization, of tradition against innovation, of
dynastic loyalty against usurpation. It was a popular struggle. . . about preserving the past,
a past in which the ‘nation-state’ had no part.”
Michael Broers, Europe Under Napoleon, 1799–1815, published in 1996
1. a) E xplain how one piece of evidence supports Broers’ argument regarding the eects
of Napoleon’s rule on the common people of Europe.
b) Explain how one piece of evidence undermines Broers’ argument regarding the
eects of Napoleon’s rule on the common people of Europe
c) Explain one example of a foreign occupation in the twentieth century, that
provoked reactions similar to those described by Broers.
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Use the map to answer all parts of the question that follows.
The map above shows an 1857 project for the construction of new streets and city blocks in the Austrian capital
Vienna. The old city is in the middle, bordered by a proposed ring of new boulevards and neighborhoods.
2. a) D escribe how one demographic trend in the mid-1800s prompted governments to
embark on urban redesign programs such as the one illustrated above.
b) Describe how one political trend in the mid-1800s prompted governments to
embark on urban redesign programs such as the one illustrated above.
c) Explain how urban redesign programs such as the one illustrated above reected
changing ideas about recreation or leisure in nineteenth century Europe.
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Choose EITHER Question 3 OR Question 4.
3. a) Describe one signicant change in the relationship between church and state in
England from the beginning of the Reformation to the end of the English Civil War.
b) Describe one signicant continuity in the relationship between church and state in
England from the beginning of the Reformation to the end of the English Civil War.
c) Explain one signicant eect of changes in the relationship between church and
state in England from the beginning of the Reformation to the end of the English
Civil War.
4. a) D escribe one signicant continuity in the role of organized religion in European
life in the twentieth century.
b) Describe one signicant change in the role of organized religion in European life in
the twentieth century.
c) Explain how one political development aected the role of organized religion in
European life in the twentieth century.
Scoring the Response
For a short-answer question, a good response should:
n
accomplish all three tasks set by the question. It should answer each task with complete
sentences and must show some specic knowledge of history to receive credit.
Depending on the question, a good response should:
n
explain a historical interpretation, compare two interpretations, and/or explain how
evidence relates to an interpretation.
n
go beyond simply quoting or paraphrasing primary or secondary sources in explaining their
meaning or signicance.
n
address causes and eects, similarities and dierences, or continuities and changes over
time for dierent historical issues, and provide specic evidence in relation to the prompt.
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There will be one document-based question on the exam.
In the sample question that follows, the main reasoning skill being assessed is continuity and
change over time, though the document-based question on the exam may focus on other skills.
Question 1. Evaluate whether or not the First World War was a transformative event in
European women’s history.
Document 1
Source: “Votes for Heroines as well as Heroes,” cover illustration, Votes for Women, weekly
magazine, November 26, 1915.
© Mary Evans Picture Library / The Women’s Library @ LSE
[CHIVALRY, looking at British Prime Minister H. H. Asquith]:
“Men and women protect one another in the hour of death.* With the addition of the
woman’s vote, they would be able to protect one another in life as well.”
* a reference to the November 17, 1915, sinking of the British hospital ship Anglia, many of whose
female nurses died asking that the wounded soldiers onboard be rescued rst
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Document 2
Source: Paul von Hindenburg, Chief of the German General Sta, letter to German
Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg, 1916.
It is also my opinion that women’s work should not be overestimated. Almost all intellectual
work, heavy physical labor, as well as all real manufacturing work will still fall on men—in
addition to the entire waging of the war. It would be good if clear, ocial expression were
given to these facts and if a stop were put to women’s agitation for parity in all professions,
and thereby, of course, for political emancipation. . . . After the war, we will still need the
woman as spouse and mother. I thus strongly support those measures, enacted through
law, prerogative, material aid, etc., aimed at that eect. In spite of the strong opposition to
such measures, it is here that vigorous action needs to be taken in order to extinguish the
inuence of this female rivalry, which disrupts the family. . . . If I nevertheless urge that the
requirement to work be extended to all women who are either unemployed or working in
trivial positions, now and for the duration of the war, I do so because, in my opinion, women
can be employed in many areas to a still greater degree than previously and men can thereby
be freed for other work.
Document 3
Source: Countess de Courson, French author, The French Woman during the War, 1916.
The task of the peasant woman is heavy, and for the past eighteen months they have
accomplished it admirably, although perhaps today with a little more lassitude. In 1914,
some of the eld work was completed by the men before they left for war, by the young
soldiers of the class of 1915 . . . who were still there to do their fair share of the work. The
summer of 1915 was more dicult to get through; the mourning, the deep anxiety pressed
on these peasant women, many of them knowing today that the empty places at the hearth
will stay that way forever. Despite the crushing weight of physical and emotional fatigue,
they continued, with few exceptions, to face up to the necessities of the war.
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Document 4
Source: Madeline Ida Bedford, English middle-class poet writing in the voice of a working-
class woman, 1917.
Munition Wages
Earning high wages?
Yes, ve pounds* a week.
A woman, too, mind you,
I calls it damn sweet.
You’re asking some questions—
But bless you, here goes:
I spends the whole racket
On good times and clothes.
We’re all here today, mate,
Tomorrow—perhaps dead,
If Fate tumbles on us
And blows up our shed.
Afraid! Are you kidding?
With money to spend!
Years back I wore tatters,
Now—silk stockings my friend!
Worth while, for tomorrow
If I’m blown to the sky,
I’ll have repaid my wages
In death—and pass by.
*British currency
Document 5
Source: Private G. F. Wilby, British frontline soldier, letter to his ancée, Ethel Baxter, 1918.
Whatever you do, don’t go in Munitions [manufacturing] or anything in that line—just ll
a Woman’s position and remain a woman—don’t develop into one of those “things” that
are doing men’s work, as I told you in one of my letters, long ago. I want to return and nd
the same loveable little woman that I left behind—not a coarse thing more of a man than a
woman—I love you because of your womanly little ways and nature, so don’t spoil yourself
by carrying on with a man’s work—it’s not necessary.
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Document 6
Source: Maria Botchkareva - Yashka, Russian woman soldier, My Life as Peasant, Ocer and
Exile, memoir, 1919
The Colonel gave the signal. But the men on my right and to the left of Captain Petrov would
not move. They replied to the Colonel’s order with questions and expressions of doubts as to
the wisdom of advancing.
The cowards!
We decided to advance in order to shame the men, having arrived at the conclusion that they
would not let us perish in No Man’s Land. . . . Some of my girls were killed outright, many
were wounded. . . . We swept forward and overwhelmed the rst German line, and then the
second . . . our regiment alone captured two thousand prisoners.
Document 7
Source: Women as percentage of the industrial workforce in France, 1911–1926.
Date 1911 1914* 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1926
34.0% 31.9% 40.1% 40.0% 40.4% 40.3% 36.4% 32.0% 31.7% 28.6%
*as of July 1914
For the document-based question, a good response should:
n
respond to the question with an evaluative thesis that makes a historically defensible
claim. The thesis must consist of one or more sentences located in one place, either in the
introduction or the conclusion. Neither the introduction nor the conclusion is necessarily
limited to a single paragraph.
n
describe a broader historical context immediately relevant to the question that relates the
topic of the question to historical events, developments, or processes that occur before,
during, or after the time frame of the question. This description should consist of more than
merely a phrase or a reference.
n
explain how at least one additional piece of specic historical evidence, beyond those
found in the documents, relates to an argument about the question. (This example must be
dierent from the evidence used to earn the point for contextualization.) This explanation
should consist of more than merely a phrase or a reference.
n
use historical reasoning to explain relationships among the pieces of evidence provided in
the response and how they corroborate, qualify, or modify the argument, made in the thesis,
that addresses the entirety of the question. In addition, a good response should utilize the
content of at least six documents to support an argument about the question.
n
explain how the document’s point of view, purpose, historical situation, and/or audience is
relevant to the argument for at least four of the documents.
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AP European History Exam
Part B: Long Essay Questions
Students will choose one of three long essay questions to answer. The long essay requires
students to demonstrate their ability to use historical evidence in crafting a thoughtful
historical argument. In the following questions, students will analyze an issue using the
reasoning skill of comparison.
The three questions focus on the same reasoning skills but apply them to dierent time
periods. This allows students to choose which time period and historical perspective they are
best prepared to write about.
Question 2. Evaluate the most signicant dierence between the Italian Renaissance and
the Northern Renaissance.
Question 3. Evaluate the most signicant dierence between Enlightenment thinkers’
view of reason and Romantic thinkers’ view of reason.
Question 4. Evaluate the most signicant dierence between European governments’
responses to nationalism in the period 1815 to 1850 and European governments’ responses
to nationalism in the period 1945 to 2000.
Scoring the Response
For the long essay question, a good response should:
n
respond to the question with an evaluative thesis that makes a historically defensible
claim. The thesis must consist of one or more sentences located in one place, either in the
introduction or the conclusion. Neither the introduction nor the conclusion is necessarily
limited to a single paragraph.
n
explain how a relevant historical context inuenced the topic addressed in the question.
It should also relate the topic of the question to broader historical events, developments,
or processes that occur before, during, or after the time frame of the question. This
explanation should consist of more than merely a phrase or a reference.
n
use historical reasoning to explain relationships among the pieces of evidence provided in
the response and how they corroborate, qualify, or modify the argument, made in the thesis,
that addresses the entirety of the question.
Further exam resources such as sample student responses, scoring
guidelines, and past exam questions can be found on AP Central.
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Answer Key and Question Alignment
to Course Framework
Multiple-Choice
Question Answer Main Practice/Skill Assessed Learning Objectives Key Concepts
1 B
Contextualization OS-1 1.1.I.B
2 D
Comparison NI-3 1.2.I.B
3
C Continuity and Change over Time SP-9 3.4.III.B
4
C Comparison OS-7 3.3.I.F
5
B Causation SP-2 1.5.I.B
6
D Analyzing Historical Evidence NI-2 1.2.I.B
7
C Analyzing Historical Evidence OS-1, OS-3 1.1.IV.D
8
B Causation IS-1 1.1.II.A
9
A Causation OS-7, NI-4 2.3.VI.B
10
B Continuity and Change over Time INT-3 3.5.I.C
11
D Contextualization PP-1 2.2.II.C
12
A Contextualization INT-1 2.2.III
13
A Causation SP-2 2.1.IV.B
14
A Contextualization PP-4 2.1.IV.A
15
C Causation IS-4 2.1.IV.E
16
C Contextualization PP-3, IS-1 1.4.II.B
17
A Continuity and Change over Time PP-2 2.4.IV.A
18
B Causation INT-5 2.2.II.D
19
D Contextualization NI-1 3.3.I.F
20
B Causation NI-4 3.4.III.E
21
C Causation NI-2 4.1.III.E
22
A Comparison NI-4 4.2.II.A, 4.4.I.A
23
D Comparison SP-3 2.1.IV.C
24
A Analyzing Historical Evidence OS-5, PP-5 3.6.II.C
25
D Analyzing Historical Evidence OS-4 4.2.II.C
26
B Contextualization NI-4 4.4.I.A
27
D Contextualization INT-5 4.1.IV.A
28
C Analyzing Historical Evidence NI-4 4.1.VI.C
29
D Continuity and Change over Time INT-5 4.4.III.C
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Multiple-Choice
Question Answer Main Practice/Skill Assessed Learning Objectives Key Concepts
30
B Contextualization IS-2 1.4.IV.B
31
B Contextualization OS-4, IS-4 1.2.I.D
32
A Causation IS-1 1.1.II.B
33
B Causation PP-2, IS-1 2.4.IV.A
34
D Analyzing Historical Evidence PP-5 3.3.II.A
35
B Causation INT-5 1.3.IV.B
36
A Analyzing Historical Evidence PP-2 2.4.I.A
37
C Contextualization SP-9 3.4.I.B
38
A Analyzing Historical Evidence NI-3 3.4.I.C
39
B Causation SP-3 3.1.II.B
40
A Causation INT-1 1.3.I.A
41
D Analyzing Historical Evidence INT-6 1.3.I.C
42
C Contextualization NI-3 1.2.II.D
43
A Continuity and Change over Time INT-3 3.5.I.C
44
B Contextualization OS-5 3.6.II.A
45
D Analyzing Historical Evidence INT-6 3.5.III.C
46
C Continuity and Change OS-5 4.3.II.A
47
B Analyzing Historical Evidence IS-5 3.2.I.B
48
B Causation PP-4 3.4.II.D
49
C Continuity and Change over Time SP-3, PP-5 4.2.I.E
50
B Contextualization OS-7 3.6.III.D
51
A Continuity and Change NI-4 4.2.II.A, 4.4.I.A
52
A Contextualization IS-3 4.4.I.A
53
D Contextualization SP-9, NI-4 4.1.IV.B
54
D Continuity and Change over Time SP-7 4.2.I.E
55
C Continuity and Change over Time SP-2 4.2.V.C
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© 2017 The College Board
AP European History Course and Exam Description
AP European History Exam
255
Short-Answer
Question Main Practice/Skill Assessed
Learning
Objectives Key Concepts
1 Analyzing Secondary Sources NI-3 2.1.V
2 Causation PP-5 3.3.II
3 Continuity and Change over Time OS-2 1.2.I, I.2.II, 1.2.III
4 Continuity and Change over Time OS-2 4.3.III
Document-
Based Question Main Practice/Skill Assessed
Learning
Objectives Key Concepts
1 Continuity and Change over Time IS-2, IS-5 4.4.I, 4.4.II
Long Essay
Question Main Practice/Skill Assessed
Learning
Objectives Key Concepts
2 Comparison OS-1, OS-2 1.1.I, 1.1.II
3 Comparison OS-3, OS-6,
OS-7
2.3.IV, 2.3.VI
4 Comparison OS-7, NI-1,
NI-4
3.3.I, 3.4.I, 4.1.V,
4.4.IV
Return to Table of Contents
© 2017 The College Board
AP European History Course and Exam Description
256
AP European History Exam
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