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example, if a participant expresses the belief that mosquitoes transmit HIV, you should relay sci-
entifically correct information about how HIV is transmitted. However, you should speak only on
subjects about which you are well informed. Include these misconceptions and clarifications in
your field notes for the interview.
What are some techniques for effective questioning?
Proficiency in techniques for asking effective questions is especially important for leading inter-
views in which participants speak liberally. This involves keeping track of which questions have
and have not been asked and answered; knowing how to phrase questions that encourage partici-
pants to provide elaborate, detailed (rather than brief) responses; and asking questions that elicit
the participant’s own views and experiences as opposed to reflecting the convictions of the inter-
viewer. Relevant techniques include asking one question at a time, verifying unclear responses,
asking open-ended questions, avoiding leading questions, and using follow-ups and probes.
What does it mean to ask one question at a time?
Be careful not to pose several questions at once with-
out giving the participant an opportunity to respond to
individual questions. This is especially apt to happen
when questions are grouped together in the interview
guide. When it does, participants are unlikely to
address each of the questions in full. A better tech-
nique for getting answers to all the questions is to ask
them one at a time, which gives you the opportunity
to provide clarification or to rephrase each question.
How do I verify unclear responses?
If you are unsure that you accurately heard what the
participant said, verify the response before going to the
next question. You might say, for example, “I’m sorry,
could you repeat what you just said? I didn’t quite hear
you.” Be careful not to imply that the response was
somehow incorrect. Alternatively, you might use the
mirroring technique, where you reflect the participant’s
answer back to him or her in question form. For
instance, you might say, “So you told her that you think
being in that study is a sign of having tuberculosis?”
How do I ask open-ended questions?
Closed-ended questions are questions that may be
answered with a single word or phrase or with a “yes”
or “no” response. An example is, “Do you use con-
doms regularly?” It is difficult to glean much insight
from these brief responses, because they usually do
not indicate “why” or “how.” A better technique for
In-Depth Interviews
INTERVIEWS
It’s not just what you say . . .
Tone refers to the volume and sound quality of a
person’s voice. It can reveal biases such as excite-
ment, approval and disapproval, scorn, surprise,
and disbelief. Remember that cultural context
affects how tone of voice will be interpreted –
what is moderate in one context may seem inap-
propriately loud in another. For example,
depending on where you are, increasing the vol-
ume of your voice might indicate that you have
become irritated or angered by a particular
response, or it could be perceived as a fluctua-
tion of the voice typical of everyday conversa-
tion. The age, gender, social status, educational
background, and economic class of both you and
the participant might also factor into which tone
you should adopt. Generally, you should aim to
use a friendly tone that will not betray your per-
sonal opinions or emotional state.
Body language is the culturally specific interpre-
tation of what it means to move or position the
body in a particular way. Facial expressions are
perhaps the most obvious example, but gestures,
posture, and constant movement can also be
powerful indicators of a person’s mood, opinion,
and evaluative stance. Interviewers should be
conscious of their body language at all times and
be careful not to imply, for example, boredom,
aggression, or exasperation. Instead, body lan-
guage that indicates patience, pleasant mood,
open attitude, and sincere interest will serve to
encourage participants to express themselves
without reserve.