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Body Image, Peer Pressure, and Sexual Activity
Whitney Miller
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Volume 8, Issue 1, December 2010. Research Manuscript. 14-26.
<http://xulanexus.xula.edu/textpattern/index.php?id=101>
Whitney Miller is a senior
Psychology Pre-Medicine
major with a minor in
Chemistry from St. Louis,
MO. After graduating from
Xavier, Miller plans to attend
medical or graduate school or
work for the Federal Bureau of
Investigation. Her research
interests include marriage and
relationships, body image,
peer pressure, and sexual
activity. Miller’s initial
involvement with this project
began as a project for her
Experimental Psychology
course that she later extended
into her research project for
her Introduction to Research
course.
Body Image, Peer Pressure and Sexual
Activity
Whitney Miller, Psychology, Pre-Medicine
Faculty Mentor: Dr. Elliot Hammer, Psychology
Abstract
Yamamiya, Cash, and Thompson (2006) found that when women
begin to obsess over their bodies and their overall physical
attractiveness, especially when trying to attract the opposite sex,
they begin to form a negative body image about themselves.
However, although research has shown that body image is
assessed when attempting to attract the opposite sex, the
relationship between body image and peer pressure’s influence on
sexual activity has not been shown. Additionally, Whitbeck,
Yoder, Hoyt, and Conger (1999) found that females with higher
levels of self-esteem had significantly lower levels of sexual
activity than those with lower levels of self-esteem. But, nothing
has yet compared body image, peer pressure, and sexual activity.
Thus, the aim of this study was to examine the effect of body
image and peer pressure on the rate of sexual activity of college
students. Undergraduate participants (N = 29) voluntarily
answered surveys containing questions regarding body image, peer
pressure, and sexual activity. The results indicated that there were
no significant relationships among participants’ body image, peer
pressure experience, and their rate of sexual activity. In future
studies, these variables can be studied to establish their effects on
the rate of sexual activity of college students.
Key Terms:
Body Image Sexuality
Peer Pressure College Students
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Introduction
For many young adults, college is the transition
from adolescence to young adulthood. In most
cases, college is where young adults begin their
lives, forming and shaping themselves into who
they want to be and what they want to become in
the future. According to Patrick, Maggs, and Abar
(2007), due to new demands and opportunities,
college is an ideal time to examine the personal
goals or obstacles that play a role in young adults’
lives. In college, however, there are many
obstacles that test the character of a person. Three
of the biggest challenges young adults may face
are peer pressure, body image, and sexual activity.
There is, however, some doubt as to whether each
of these challenges affects the other. This study
examines the relationship between peer pressure,
body image, and sexual activity on a historically
Black university’s campus.
In Western society, it is common to see that the
prototype of an attractive female body is for
women to be thin. This image is shown in many
television commercials that depict women
appearing to be very slim and men fawning over
them. A considerable amount of women do not fit
this prototype. Shoemaker and Furman (2007)
found that many women who do not look like
what the media portrays may find that thinness is
an acceptable and crucial part of being attractive.
Furthermore, Yamamiya, Cash, and Thompson
(2006) found that when women begin to obsess
over their bodies and their overall physical
attractiveness, especially when trying to attract the
opposite sex, they begin to form a negative body
image about themselves. With advertisements
promoting a particular female body image, it is not
surprising that young adults may begin to question
their attractiveness and body image as a whole.
Following other researchers work, Franzoi and
Shields (1984), for the purposes of the present
study, negative body image is defined as a
degrading view of one’s body, making one’s
physical appearance personally unpleasing.
Although the media is a constant source of
idealism, many females may gain a negative body
image from their peers on campus. According to
Franzoi and Klaiber (2007), people’s body image
decreased when they compared themselves to
others who closely matched society’s ideas of
physical attractiveness. Women may then begin to
base their self-attractiveness not only on those
with whom they compare themselves, whether it
be peers or women in commercials, but also on the
behaviors of their peers.
Next, in line with Franzoi and Klaiber (2007), peer
pressure is defined as an influence on the decision
of others, causing them to conform to what peers
or society desire. Note that peer pressure can lead
to both positive and negative outcomes. As much
as people can be pressured into doing something
they may not want to do, such as having sex, they
can also be pressured to do something that is
beneficial to them, like earning good grades. The
pressure to conform to what is acceptable or to
what is desired is a daily obstacle for many.
Assuming that peers have heavy influences on
each other, given the amount of time they interact,
it is safe to conclude that peer pressure can greatly
influence many activities that go on in young
adults’ lives.
Body image and peer pressure can affect a young
adult’s life on a regular basis. However, these two
are not the only things that affect young people.
Sexual activity also affects a young person’s life,
especially on a college campus. To show a
negative relationship between peer pressure and
sexual activity by means of self-esteem, Whitbeck,
Yoder, Hoyt, and Conger (1999) found that
females, grades eight through ten, with higher
levels of self-esteem had significantly lower levels
of sexual activity than those with lower levels of
self-esteem. This shows that in adolescents, self-
esteem was influential in levels of sexual activity.
It could then be plausible that self-esteem would
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be influential in levels of sexual activity in other
young adults.
Patrick, Maggs, and Abar (2007) found that when
college students were asked why they decided to
have sex, having someone to love and being loved
were some of the most common answers. The peer
pressure of having someone to love or being loved
produces a desire to be wanted and a need for
conformity among college students. Eshbaugh and
Gute (2008) found that college women who
regretted having sex with someone only had sex in
the first place because they felt pressured in to it.
In addition, Meana and Nunnink (2005) found that
women who had a negative body image focused
on themselves while having sex instead of
focusing on their partner or the act of sex itself.
This example shows a relationship not only
between body image and sexual activity, but also
peer pressure and sexual activity because, in this
case, the female is not enjoying the act of sex
itself, and she is participating in the act mainly
because of her partner. Both body image and
sexual activity, and peer pressure and sexual
activity have been shown to be related among
young adults on college campuses. Sexual activity
plays a role together with body image and peer
pressure, and also by itself in young adult’s lives.
Researchers have defined sexual activity in
numerous ways. For the purpose of this study,
sexual activity will be defined as sexual
intercourse including vaginal sex, anal sex, and
oral sex. However, some young adults may have a
different definition of sex. Knox, Zusman, and
McNeely (2008) found that undergraduates at a
southeastern university believed that oral sex was
not really sex and that cybersex was not
necessarily cheating if one was in a relationship.
Sexual activity on college campuses may also
have something to do with why some students
decide to have sex and why some do not. Leigh
(1989) found that women may decide to have sex
as an expression of their love and feelings to their
partner, whereas men may decide to have sex
purely for lust or sexual conquest. According to
Kaestle and Halpern (2007), some college students
believe that if feelings are not reciprocated, sex
can strengthen the relationship.
Although body image, peer pressure, and sexual
activity are all obstacles in young adult’s lives, it
appears that when people enter college, they are
constantly faced with these and many other crucial
obstacles. I hypothesize that peer pressure and
body image have a strong association with the
prevalence of sexual activity among college
campuses. The more positive participants’ body
image is, the lower their sexual activity will be.
The higher the participants’ peer pressure
experience is, the higher their sexual activity will
be.
Method
Participants
The sample consisted of 29 undergraduate
students from a historically Black university. Any
undergraduate student of any ethnicity and age
could volunteer to participate in a study about
body image, peer pressure, and sexual activity
among college campuses. The sample consisted of
males and females of different classification levels
and as an incentive, participants were offered a
study credit or extra credit for their psychology
class at the discretion of their teacher.
Materials
The first variable that was measured was body
image. To measure body image, participants
completed the Body Esteem Scale (Franzoi &
Shields, 1984). The Body Esteem Scale indicated
how participants felt about their body image as
they rated themselves. On this scale, participants
rated their body image, measuring 35 body parts
and functions on a 5-point Likert scale with “1”
being “strong negative feelings” and “5” being
“strong positive feelings.” Possible scores ranged
from 35 to 175. Higher numbers indicated a higher
body image.
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The second variable that was measured was peer
pressure. To measure peer pressure, participants
completed the Peer Pressure, Popularity, and
Conformity Scale (Santor, Messervey &
Kusumakar, 2000). The Peer Pressure, Popularity,
and Conformity Scale indicated how participants
felt about the experiences they had with peer
pressure, popularity, and conformity. On this
scale, participants rated 30 items divided into the
three topics of peer pressure, popularity, and
conformity on a 5-point Likert scale with “1”
being “strongly disagree” and “5” being “strongly
agree.” Possible scores ranged from 30 to 150.
Higher numbers indicated greater peer pressure
when making choices.
The third and final variable that was measured was
sexual activity. To measure sexual activity,
participants completed the Attitudes Towards
Condoms Scale (Brown, 1984). The Attitude
Towards Condoms Scale indicated participants’
rate of sexual activity. On this scale, participants
rated 40 items on a 5-point Likert scale with “1”
being “strongly disagree” and “5” being “strongly
agree.” Possible scores ranged from 40 to 200.
Higher numbers indicated higher rates of sexual
activity and more positive feelings about sexual
activity.
Design and Procedure
Upon arrival, participants were informed that they
did not have to stay for the duration of the study
and were allowed to leave at any time they chose.
Participants were given a packet containing an
informed consent waiver, a demographic survey, a
blank copy of the Body Esteem Scale, a blank
copy of the Peer Pressure, Popularity, and
Conformity Scale, a blank copy of the Attitudes
Toward Condoms Scale, and a debriefing
statement. The informed consent form was
collected before participants began answering the
surveys. When the participants completed the
surveys, they were asked not to talk, and no other
participant was allowed in the room once
informed consent waivers had been collected.
Researchers collected the surveys from the
participants, and the participants were asked to
carefully read the debriefing statement that
explained the purposes of this study. The
researchers assured participants that all answers
given in the surveys would remain anonymous.
The researchers then thanked participants for
filling out the survey, and participants were asked
to identify the professor for whom they would
receive extra credit.
Results
A Pearson correlation was calculated to examine
the relationship between participants’ sexual
activity and body image, peer pressure, popularity,
and conformity. Between body image and sexual
activity, a weak correlation was found, which
means that the relationship was not significant,
r(28) = .163, p > .05. Between peer pressure and
sexual activity, a weak insignificant negative
correlation was found, r(28) = -.183, p > .05.
Between popularity and sexual activity, a weak
insignificant correlation was found, r(28) = .019, p
> .05. Between conformity and sexual activity, a
weak insignificant correlation was found, r(28) =
.012, p > .05. This study’s hypothesis was not
supported, as there was no significant relationship
between the variables measured.
Discussion
The results did not support the hypothesis that
participants who have a more positive body image
will have lower sexual activity and that
participants who have a higher peer pressure
experience will also have higher levels of sexual
activity. However, these results are not completely
useless. The results of the study indicate that
participants’ view of their body image had no
considerable effect on their rate of sexual activity.
Also, the results indicate that participants’
experience with peer pressure had no considerable
effect on their rate of sexual activity. Therefore,
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the results suggest that college students are more
secure with their decisions regarding sexual
activity and that few, if any, outside influences
affect this decision.
Limitations for this study include a lack of
demographic information and design flaws. The
participants were not asked to give their ethnic
identification thus there was no way to determine
if a correlation between ethnicity and the variables
studied was present. In addition, design flaws
such as unclear survey directions may have lead to
participants being confused about the questions
being asked and how they were to respond to each
question. Other limitations for this study include
the limited samples of males: out of 30
participants, only three were male. Thus, the study
was biased because there was not enough male
input to have an even amount of responses from
male and female participants. In addition, past
research examining the variables of peer pressure
and sexual activity reported that there was a
significant relationship between the two,
suggesting that there would also be significant
results in this study.
Future researchers that replicate this study’s
design should first ask all participants to identify
their ethnic identities in order to understand how
ethnicity affects the variables studied. Next, all
questions should be clarified in the surveys in an
effort to make sure the participants know what
they are being asked. Also, the number of male
participants should be increased to aid in the effort
of making the results non-biased. Furthermore, the
effects of body image and peer pressure
experience of participants between the ages of 12
to 27 should be studied because it would be
determinable at what age body image and peer
pressure experience play a role in participants’
rate of sexual activity. Lastly, this study should be
made experimental to discover if manipulating the
variables has any effect on what participants think
about the relationships between body image, peer
pressure experience, and the rate of sexual
activity. By making this study experimental, future
researchers may find relationships between
variables that were not present in this study. For
example, in an experimental study, participants
could be provided with different images of people
and then be asked to rate the body image of the
person depicted. This might show how people rate
others’ body image and if any factors affect these
ratings, such as age, skin tone, or weight.
The preset study is unique and useful in its design.
There have been previous studies measuring
peoples’ body image in relation to self-esteem or
measuring people’s sexual activity in relation to
age. However, this study measures body image,
peer pressure and sexual activity, comparing the
three against each other in order to determine if
there is a significant relationship present. This is
important because future researchers will be able
to learn about the factors, if any, that affect sexual
activity in people, which can then be applied to
various fields such as sex education programs,
population statistics, and future psychologists’
work.
While this study found no significant results
between body image, peer pressure, and the rate of
sexual activity of college students, future
participants may use the measures given to assess
their own body image, peer pressure experience,
and the effect they have on their rate of sexual
activity in college. Future researchers may also
use the results found in this study to better assess
what factors, if any, affect the rate of sexual
activity of college students.
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References
Brown, I. S. (1984). Development of a scale to
measure attitude toward the condom as a
method of birth control. Journal of Sex
Research, 20, 255-63.
Eshbaugh, E., & Gute, G. (2008). Hookups and
sexual regret among college women.
Journal of Social Psychology, 148, 77-89.
Franzoi, S., & Klaiber, J. (2007). Body use and
reference group impact: With whom do we
compare our bodies? Sex Roles, 56, 205-
214.
Franzoi, S., & Shields, S. (1984). The body esteem
scale: Multidimensional structure and sex
differences in a college population.
Journal of Personality Assessment, 48,
173-178.
Geisser, M., Jefferson, T., Spevak, M., Boaz, T.,
Thomas, R., & Murray, F. (1991).
Reliability and validity of the Florida
sexual history questionnaire. Journal of
Clinical Psychology, 47, 519-528.
Kaestle, C., & Halpern, C. (2007). What's love got
to do with it? Sexual behaviors of
opposite-sex couples through emerging
adulthood. Perspectives on Sexual and
Reproductive Health, 39, 134-140.
Knox, D., Zusman, M., & McNeely, A. (2008).
University student beliefs about sex: Men
vs. women. College Student Journal, 42,
181-185.
Leigh, B. (1989). Reasons for having and avoiding
sex: Gender, sexual orientation, and
relationship to sexual behavior. Journal of
Sex Research, 26, 199-209.
Meana, M. & Nunnink, S. (2005). Gender
differences in the content of cognitive
distraction during sex: Special issue:
Scientific abstracts, world congress of
sexology. Journal of Sex Research, 43, 59-
67.
Patrick, M., Maggs, J., & Abar, C. (2007).
Reasons to have sex, personal goals, and
sexual behavior during the transition to
college. Journal of Sex Research, 44, 240-
249.
Santor, D., Messervey, D., & Kusumakar, V.
(2000). Measuring peer pressure,
popularity, and conformity in adolescent
boys and girls: Predicting school
performance, sexual attitudes, and
substance abuse. Journal of Youth and
Adolescence, 29,163-183.
Shoemaker, L. & Furman, W. (2007). Same-sex
peers' influence on young women's body
image: An experimental manipulation.
Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology,
26, 871-895.
Whitbeck, L., Yoder, K., Hoyt, D., & Conger, R.
(1999). Early adolescent sexual activity: A
developmental study. Journal of Marriage
& the Family, 61, 934-946.
Yamamiya, Y., Cash, T.F., & Thompson, J.K.
(2006). Sexual experiences among college
women: The differential effects of general
versus contextual body images on
sexuality. Sex Roles, 55, 421-427.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the two teachers in the
psychology department who have guided me not
only through this paper, but my major in
psychology as well, Dr. Elliot Hammer and Dr.
Elizabeth Hammer.
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Table 1: Correlations Between Variables
ESTEEM
PEER
POPULARITY
CONFORMITY
ACT.
ESTEEM
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
29
.139
29
.949
29
.982
29
.399
29
PEER
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
-.281
.139
29
29
.019
29
.295
29
.341
29
POPULARITY
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
.949
29
.019
29
29
.793
29
.924
29
CONFORMITY
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
.982
29
.295
29
.793
29
29
.951
29
ACT.
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
.399
29
.341
29
.924
29
.951
29
29
Correlations are significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
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Appendix A: Body Esteem Scale
Instructions: On this page are listed a number of body parts and functions. Please read each item and
indicate how you feel about this part or function of your own body using the following scale:
1 = Have strong negative feelings
2 = Have moderate negative feelings
3 = Have no feeling one way or the other
4 = Have moderate positive feelings
5 = Have strong positive feelings
Factor Loading (see below)
Male Female
1. body scent
2. appetite
3. nose
4. physical stamina
5. reflexes
6. lips
7. muscular strength
8. waist
9. energy level
10. thighs
11. ears
12. biceps
13. chin
14. body build
15. physical coordination
16. buttocks
17. agility
18. width of shoulders
19. arms
20. chest or breasts
21. appearance of eyes
22. cheeks/cheekbones
23. hips
24. legs
25. figure or physique
26. sex drive
27. feet
28. sex organs
29. appearance of stomach
30. health
31. sex activities
32. body hair
33. physical condition
34. face
35. weight
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Appendix B: Peer Pressure, Popularity and Conformity Scale
Instructions: On this page are listed a number of items. Please read each item and indicate how you feel
about each item using the following scale:
1 = Strongly Disagree
2 = Slightly Disagree
3 = Neutral
4 = Slightly Agree
5 = Strongly Agree
Note: These items should be answered in response to collegiate life.
Peer Pressure Items
__ My friends could push me into doing just about anything
__ I give into peer pressure easily
__ When at school, if a group of people asked me to do something, it would be hard to say no.
__ At, times, I’ve broken rules because others have urged me to do so
__ At times, I’ve done dangerous or foolish things because others dared me to.
__ I often feel pressured to do things I wouldn’t normally do
__ If my friends are drinking, it would be hard for me to resist having a drink
__ I’ve skipped classes, when others have urged me to
__ I’ve felt pressured to have sex, because a lot of people my own age have already had sex
__ I’ve felt pressured to get drunk at parties
__ At times, I’ve felt pressured to do drugs, because others have urged me too
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Popularity Items
__ I have done things to make me more popular, even when it meant doing something I would not
usually do
__ I’ve neglected some friends because of what other people might think
__ At times, I’ve ignored some people in order to be more popular with others
__ I’d do almost anything to avoid being seen as a “loser”
__ It’s important that people think I’m popular
__ At times, I’ve gone out with people, just because they were popular
__ I’ve bought things, because they were the “in” things to have
__ At times, I’ve changed the was I dress in order to be more popular
__ I’ve been friends with some people, just because others liked them.
__ I’ve gone to parties, just to be part of the crowd
__ I often do things just to be popular with the people at school
__ At times, I’ve hung out with some people, so others wouldn’t think I was unpopular
Conformity Items
__ If a teacher asks me to do something, I usually do it
__ I usually do what I am told
__ I usually obey my parents
__ I follow my parents’ wishes even when it means not doing something I want to do
__ Even when I disagree with my parents’ wishes, I usually do what I am told
__ I break rules frequently
__ I rarely follow the rules
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Appendix C: Attitude Toward Condoms Scale
Instructions: Please read each item and write the answer that corresponds to how you feel about what is
being said.
* If you have never had sex, put NA for each answer
SD-Strongly Disagree; D-Disagree; U-Undecided; A-Agree; SA-Strongly Agree
___ 1. In my opinion, condoms are too much trouble.
___ 2. Condoms are unreliable.
___ 3. Condoms are pleasant to use.
___ 4. The neatness of condoms, for example, no wet spot on the bed, makes them attractive.
___ 5. I see the use of condoms as adding to the excitement of foreplay if the female partner helps the
male put it in place.
___ 6. I would be willing to try a condom, even if I have never used one before.
___ 7. There is no reason why a woman should be embarrassed to suggest a condom.
___ 8. Women think men who use condoms show concern and caring.
___ 9. I intend to try condoms.
___ 10. I think proper use of the condom can enhance sexual pleasure.
___ 11. Many people make use of the condom as an erotic part of foreplay.
___ 12. All things considered, condoms seem safer to me than any other form of contraception except
abstinence.
___ 13. I just don't like the idea of using condoms.
___ 14. I think condoms look ridiculous.
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Miller: Body Image, Peer Pressure, and Sexual Activity
Published by XULA Digital Commons, 2010
XULAneXUS: Xavier University of Louisiana’s Undergraduate Research Journal
Special Relationships 25
Body Image, Peer Pressure, and Sexual Activity 25
___ 15. Condoms are inconvenient.
___ 16. I see no reason to be embarrassed by the use of condoms.
___ 17. Putting a condom on an erect penis can be a real sexual turn-on.
___ 18. Condoms are uncomfortable.
___ 19. Using a condom makes sex unenjoyable.
___ 20. I would avoid using condoms if at all possible.
___ 21. I would be comfortable suggesting that my partner and I use a condom.
___ 22. Condoms ruin the sex act.
___ 23. Condoms are uncomfortable for both partners.
___ 24. Women think men who use condoms are jerks.
___ 25. The idea of using a condom doesn't appeal to me.
___ 26. Use of the condom is an interruption of foreplay.
___ 27. What to do with a condom after use is a real problem.
___ 28. The thought of using a condom is disgusting.
___ 29. Having to stop to put on a condom takes all the romance out of sex.
___ 30. Most women don't like for their partners to use condoms.
___ 31. I don't think condoms interfere with the enjoyment of sex.
___ 32. There is no way that using a condom can be pleasant.
___ 33. Using a condom requires taking time out of foreplay, which interrupts the pleasure of sex.
___ 34. I think condoms are an excellent means of contraception.
___ 35. Condoms seem unreliable.
___ 36. There is no reason why a man should be embarrassed to suggest using a condom.
___ 37. To most women, a man who uses a condom is sexier than one who leaves protection up to the
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XULAneXUS, Vol. 8 [2010], Iss. 1, Art. 12
https://digitalcommons.xula.edu/xulanexus/vol8/iss1/12
XULAneXUS: Xavier University of Louisiana’s Undergraduate Research Journal
woman.
___ 38. The condom is a highly satisfactory form of contraception.
___ 39. I would have no objection if my partner suggested that we use a condom.
___ 40. The skillful woman can make placing a condom a highly erotic experience.
Appendix D: Demographic Survey
Please answer the following questions:
1. What is your gender?
A. Male
B. Female
2. What is your age?
3. What is your classification?
A. Freshman
B. Sophomore
C. Junior
D. Senior
E. Pharmacy School
4. What is your major?
5. What is your minor?
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivate Works 3.0
License. To view a copy of this license, visit: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/us.
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Miller: Body Image, Peer Pressure, and Sexual Activity
Published by XULA Digital Commons, 2010