Agriculture now is characterized by specialization, or the growing of specialized crops because they
seem to be the most protable. Farmers must weigh in costs of production – such as machinery, fuel,
fertilizer, and labor – and deal with unpredictable weather and/or disease. Also, market conditions may
change by the time the crops are harvested, contributing to the risks. To minimize their risks, farmers
in the 1950s in the United States began signing agreements with buyer-processors, who specied exact
times and weights of products to be delivered, including chickens, cattle, wheat, potatoes, and other
basic foods.
This agribusiness is now spreading to developing countries where small-size farmers are linking with
foreign sources for advice, seeds, fertilizers, machinery, and protable markets at stable prices. Contract
farming in poorer countries has been criticized as exploitative of small farmers who receive too little
money for their products. Farmers in wealthier countries are also concerned that competition from
farmers in less developed countries will drive down market prices. As a result, some governments have
placed controversial tariffs on foreign produce in order to protect their own farmers.
THE THIRD AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION
The First Agricultural (Neolithic) Revolution began about 10,000 years ago when people changed
from hunting and gathering to farming in several different areas of the world. The Second Agricultural
Revolution occurred in the late 18
th
century as improved equipment and better farming methods greatly
increased the productivity of European farms. The Third Agricultural Revolution began in the mid-
20
th
century and is still going on today in the form of industrial agriculture, modern farming that refers
to the industrialized production of livestock, poultry, sh, and crops. Methods of industrial agriculture
include innovation in agricultural machinery and methods, genetic technology, techniques for achieving
economies of scale in production, the creation of new markets for consumption, and global trade.
These methods are widespread in developed nations and increasingly prevalent worldwide. Most of the
meat, dairy, eggs, fruits, and vegetables available in supermarkets are produced using these methods of
industrial agriculture. It is based on new, higher-yielding varieties of crops developed in laboratories
and plant nurseries through biotechnology, the use of genetically altered crops in agriculture and DNA
manipulation in livestock in order to increase production. The experiments began with hybrid rice
initiatives in the U.S. Midwest in the 1930s, eventually leading to the development of “IR8,” a cross
developed in the Philippines between a dwarf Chinese variety of rice and an Indonesian variety. This
led to other hybrids, so that by the 1980s “IR36” was developed, with the qualities of larger grains,
a shorter growing cycle, and more resistance to pests. By the early 1990s IR36 was the most widely
grown crop on earth. Meanwhile, a “miracle wheat seed” was developed that was shorter and stiffer,
hardier, and faster-maturing than traditional varieties. More recently, scientists have developed new
high-yield variations of corn.
By the 1970s the collection of new agricultural techniques was called the Green Revolution, which
involved two important practices: the use of new higher-yield seeds and the expanded use of fertilizers.
New miracle seeds diffused rapidly around the world, with many countries recording dramatic
productivity increases. Biotechnologists don’t just cross two varieties of plants or animals, hoping for
the best. Instead, they identify the particular genes on the DNA molecules that produce the desirable
characteristic and splice the gene directly into the chromosomes of the other plant or animal. During the
19
th
century scientists identied the critical elements in natural fertilizers (manure, bones, and ashes) as
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Today these three elements form the basis for fertilizers that have
boosted crop productivity even further. The Green Revolution has resulted in agricultural production
outpacing population growth by the late 20
th
century.
THE IMPACT OF THE GREEN REVOLUTION
The Green Revolution has brought about dramatic changes in the world’s food production, with
consequences that have been both praised and criticized.
Whereas the Green Revolution appears to be contributing to the good health of many people around
the world, it has failed to provide famine relief for people in Sub-Saharan Africa. Seriously affected
countries include Somalia, Ethiopian, Sudan, Gambia, Senegal, Mali, Mauritania, Burkina Faso, Niger,
and Chad. Part of the problem is lack of resources to buy seed, fertilizer, and machinery, but the situation
is worsened by rapid population growth. Traditionally, this region supported limited agriculture, with
pastoral nomadism prevailing. The land has now been overgrazed by animals, and soils have been
exhausted from overplanting. These practices have led to an alarming rate of desertication,with the
Sahara Desert continuing to claim more and more land space. Soil erosion has become a problem, with
the limited number of trees cut for wood and charcoal for urban cooking and heating. Government
policies have traditionally favored urban populations by keeping food prices low, giving farmers little
incentive to increase their productivity. In recent years international aid for agriculture has dropped
drastically, while aid for health and primary education has surged. However, in its 2007 annual report,
the World Bank put agriculture and the productivity of small farmers – particularly in Africa – at the
heart of its global agenda to reduce poverty. The African Union and the United Nations have also
advocated major investments to increase the productivity of poor farmers in Africa, although a great
deal of disagreement remains regarding the role that African government should play in spurring farm
productivity.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF MODERN AGRICULTURE
From its very beginnings, agriculture has transformed the natural landscape. Forests have been cleared for
agriculture, terraces built into hillsides, and natural vegetation removed in order to make room for desirable
crops. However, the industrialization and commercialization of agriculture has strengthened agriculture’s
impact on the environment. More land has been cleared, and the land is farmed more intensely. As a result,
the mix of plants and animals on any given plot of earth is often a far cry from what existed there naturally.
Other problems, beyond clearing the land, include:
• Erosion – Lands cleared for agriculture almost immediately begins to erode away, usually by wind or
running water. The surface material removed is transported by rivers, and changes valley contours,
extending areas subject to ooding, and clogging irrigation and drainage channels.
• Changes in the organic content of soil – Crops take nutrients from the soil, so they change its
organic content, especially if elds are not allowed to remain fallow long enough to restore the
nutrients removed, or if crops are not rotated on a regular basis. The more pressure there is on land
to be farmed intensely, the more likely it becomes for soil to lose its fertility.
AGRICULTURE 149148 UNIT FIVE