Diminishing Credit: How Colleges and Universities Restrict the Use

INTRODUCTION

The college affordability crisis looms large for

working and middle-class Americans. Parents and

students are reeling from record levels of student

loan debt and ever-increasing tuition hikes. Total

student loan debt is now a record $1.26 trillion and

the typical 2016 college graduate has $37,172 in

student loan debt, up six percent from last year.

The costs of postsecondary education are now higher

in the United States than anywhere else in the world.

Despite the buildup of student debt, colleges and

universities continue to jack up prices in the form

of higher tuition and fees. The cumulative change

in tuition and fees at all types of higher education

institutions has grown (in constant dollars) by 129

percent from 1981 to 2014. Median family income,

of course, has not kept pace, growing only 11 percent

over the same period. In 1981, annual college tuition

and fees represented 18 percent of median family

income. Now they account for 37 percent.

For a growing number of students the cost of

college has become so high that they sometimes

are forced to choose between skipping meals

and paying for tuition, books, and dorm rooms.

According to a study by Sara Goldrick-Rab of 4,000

community college students, slightly more than

half of respondents indicated they experienced

marginal to very low food security.

If college costs

continue to rise at their current pace, Congress may

have to consider a free college lunch program for

undergraduates.

Fortunately, responsible political leaders are pushing

to make college affordable. Hillary Clinton has put

America’s ballooning student debt crisis at the center

of the 2016 debate. In contrast, Donald Trump has

MEMO

SEPTEMBER 2016

BY PAUL WEINSTEIN, JR.

About the author

Paul Weinstein Jr. is a senior fellow with the Progressive Policy Institute and directs the Graduate Program in Public Management at the Johns

Hopkins University.

Diminishing Credit: How Colleges

and Universities Restrict the Use

of Advanced Placement

PROGRESSIVE POLICY INSTITUTE

DIMINISHING CREDIT: HOW COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES RESTRICT THE USE OF ADVANCED PLACEMENT

offered no ideas for bringing college costs under

control.

Clinton’s “New College Compact” is a big,

multifaceted plan to take the debt monkey off the

backs of millennials who attend public universities.

But one thing it is not is cheap — the price tag is

$350 billion.

And while it does try to curb college

tuition costs at public institutions, it doesn’t roll

them back.

In a 2014 report entitled “Give Our Kids a Break:

How Three-Year Degrees Can Cut the Cost of

College,” PPI proposed a more ambitious remedy that

would actually reduce the cost of college: Awarding

degrees in three years rather than four. If three-year

bachelor’s degrees became the norm in America,

as they are in much of Europe, students would see

up to a 25 percent savings in tuition and fees. And

because the proposal would free up class room and

dorm space, colleges could make up the lost tuition

by increasing the number of students they enroll in

any given year. On average, students and families

would see total savings of $8,893 for undergraduates

attending four-year public schools (in-state) and a

$30,094 reduction for those at private institutions.

Best of all, it wouldn’t cost taxpayers a dime.

Cutting tuition by a quarter, of course, would

also reduce the amount students need to borrow.

Nearly 70% of bachelor’s degree holders have taken

out student loans, with an average debt burden

of $29,400. Assuming someone borrows $29,400

at 4.66% over four years, the interest owed would

amount to $7,505. But shaving a year off college cuts

that interest tab to about $5,629, a savings of $1,876.

And keep in mind we are talking averages here; the

many students carrying debts well above the average

will reap bigger savings.

Nonetheless, it would be naïve to expect most U.S.

universities and colleges to move toward three-year

degrees without a nudge from public policy. It will

likely require a mixture of incentives and penalties

to encourage the vast majority of schools to move in

this direction. Fortunately, some schools have taken

the initiative and have begun offering a three-year

degree option. Leading the way are Bates College,

St. Johns University, Purdue, the University of

South Carolina, the University of North Carolina

Greensboro, the University of San Francisco, Florida

State, and Wesleyan College, among others.

HOW UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES RESTRICT

CREDIT FOR ADVANCED PLACEMENT WORK

Another way for students to ﬁnish one semester

early or perhaps graduate in three years is to earn

Advanced Placement (AP) credit. AP’s origins

lie in a 1952 study by three preparatory schools

(Lawrenceville School, Phillips Academy, and

Phillips Exeter Academy) and three universities

(Harvard, Princeton, and Yale) that recommended

allowing high school seniors to study college level

material and to take examinations that (depending

on the score achieved) would enable them to get

college credit for their work.

This report led to the

creation of the AP program, run by the College

Board, a nonproﬁt organization.

Today, over one million high school students take AP

courses in 36 subject disciplines, and their number

is growing. According to the College Board, the

number of total AP examinees doubled from 2003

to 2013 (going from 514,163 to 1,0

03,430). About a

quarter of those examinees are minorities, whose

share of the total has more than quadrupled during

that same decade, going from 58,489 to 275,874.

Yet while the number of students taking AP exams

grows, colleges and universities are making it

increasingly difficult for them to get actual college

credit. Eighty-six percent of the top 153 universities

and colleges in the United States restrict the

awarding of AP credit, denying students hundreds

of millions in tuition savings. Only a handful of

colleges deny AP credit altogether, but many others

restrict the granting of credits. As a result, students

who start their undergraduate studies thinking they

have enough AP credits to graduate a semester or

year early often discover their school has denied

some or all of their AP coursework. “The AP system

Eighty-six percent of the top 153

universities and colleges in the United

States restrict the awarding of AP

credit, denying students hundreds of

millions in tuition savings

PROGRESSIVE POLICY INSTITUTE

DIMINISHING CREDIT: HOW COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES RESTRICT THE USE OF ADVANCED PLACEMENT

increasingly resembles the frequent ﬂier programs

of legacy airlines,” notes Bruce Reed, President

Clinton’s former top domestic policy adviser. “They

are worth a lot more when you earn them than when

you try to redeem them,” Reed stated.

In researching this study, I examined the AP policies

of the top 102 universities and top 51 colleges

according to U.S. News and World Report.

According

to information made publicly available by the College

Board and these schools, a majority of colleges and

universities limit the use of AP credit towards a

degree. Based on the data shown in Tables 1 and 2,

there are four primary ways schools restrict AP credit.

1. Disallow course credit for any AP work. Nine schools

give students no credit for AP work. These

institutions include some of the top schools in the

country: Dartmouth University, Brown University,

the California Institute of Technology, Williams

College, and Amherst College.

2. Restrict the number of AP subject areas that are eligible

for course credit. Only 25 percent of the schools in

this study allow students to receive credit in all

AP subject area disciplines.

The rest (75 percent)

eliminate some subject areas from consideration.

The schools that give credit for all AP subject areas

tend to be public universities.

3. Hike the minimum AP score needed to receive credit.

Almost half (44 percent) of the top schools do not

accept a score of 3 on AP exams for credit. AP

exams are scored on a scale of 1 to 5. A score of 5

means the student is extremely well qualiﬁed to

receive college credit for that course. A score of 4

means the student is well qualiﬁed, and a score

of 3 indicates that the student is qualiﬁed.

Yet

even though the College Board considers those

who score a 3 to have achieved a grade of C, C+ or

B-, 64 schools choose not to recognize that score.

And among some elite schools such as Harvard,

MIT, and Haverford, the minimum score is a 5.

In response to this raising of the bar for AP credit,

Texas enacted a law in 2015 that requires the state’s

colleges and universities to give credit for scores

of 3 or higher on AP tests (an exception was made

for prerequisites). The law’s sponsor has argued

that accepting all scores of 3 for credit will save

students in Texas up to $160 million in foregone

tuition.

While that might be overly optimistic, the

fact remains more students will be able to cut their

tuition bill in Texas.

4. Cap the total amount of AP credit that students can

receive. Another way colleges restrict the use AP

credit is by capping the total amount of AP credit

granted to any one student. Some 38 percent of

the schools on our list cap the amount of AP credit

they will give students, making it nearly impossible

in some cases for students to graduate early.

THE AP CREDIT SQUEEZE

Why are schools restricting the use of AP? One

rationale is quality. Many schools and their faculty

argue that AP courses are not an adequate substitute

for actual college courses. At zero-credit Dartmouth,

Michael Mastanduno, Dean of Faculty of the School

of Arts and Sciences, explains: “Ultimately the

decision to modify the policy was made to require our

students to take full advantage of the faculty expertise

Over one million high school

students take AP courses in 36

subject disciplines, doubling

numbers from 514,163 in 2003

to 1,003,430 in 2013

PROGRESSIVE POLICY INSTITUTE

DIMINISHING CREDIT: HOW COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES RESTRICT THE USE OF ADVANCED PLACEMENT

RANK INSTITUTION

AWARD

AP CREDIT

% AP

TESTS

ACCEPTED

MINI.

SCORE

CAP AP

CREDITS RANK INSTITUTION

AWARD

CREDIT

% AP

TESTS

ACCEPTED

MINI.

SCORE

CAP AP

CREDITS

1 Princeton University Yes 55 4 Yes 30 Boston College Yes 94 3 No

2 Harvard University Yes 44 5 Yes 30

University of North

Carolina— Chapel Hill

Yes 97 3 No

3 Yale University Yes 38 4 No 32 New York University Yes 83 4 Yes

4 Columbia University Yes 65 4 Yes 33 University of Rochester Yes 55 3 No

4 Stanford University# Yes 41 4 Yes 34 Brandeis University Yes 80 4 Yes

4 University of Chicago Yes 71 3 Yes 34

College of William

and Mary

Yes 86 4 No

7 MIT Yes 82 5 No 36

Georgia Institute of

Technology

Yes 89 3 No

8 Duke University N/A N/A N/A N/A 37

Case Western Reserve

University

Yes 91 4 No

University of

Pennsylvania

Yes 41 4 Yes 37

University of

California— Santa

Barbara

Yes 100 3 No

California Institute of

Technology

No 0 N/A N/A 39

University of

California— Irvine

Yes 100 3 No

Johns Hopkins

University*

Yes 31 4 No 39

University of

California— San Diego

Yes 97 3 No

12 Dartmouth College No 0 N/A No 41 Boston University Yes 86 4 No

Northwestern

University ###

Yes 100 4 Yes 41

Rensselaer Polytechnic

Institute

Yes 78 3 Yes

14 Brown University No 0 N/A N/A 41 Tulane University Yes 94 4 No

15 Cornell University Yes 53 4 No 41

University of

California— Davis

Yes 94 3 No

15 Vanderbilt University Yes 92 4 Yes 41

University of Illinois—

Urbana- Champaign

Yes 100 3 No

Washington University

in St. Louis****

Yes 80 4 Yes 47 Lehigh University Yes 83 4 No

18 Rice University Yes 89 4 No 47

Northeastern

University

Yes 97 4 No

University of Notre

Dame***

Yes 55 4 Yes 47

Pennsylvania State

University— University

Park

Yes 100 3 No

University of

California— Berkeley

Yes 72 3 No 47 University of Florida Yes 100 3 No

21 Emory University Yes 89 4 Yes 51 University of Miami Yes 86 3 Yes

21 Georgetown University Yes 83 4 Yes 52

Ohio State

University— Columbus

Yes 100 3 No

Carnegie Mellon

University

Yes 92 4 No 52 Pepperdine University Yes 100 3 No

University of

California— Los

Angeles

Yes 100 3 No 52

University of Texas—

Austin

Yes 92 3 No

University of Southern

California

Yes 100 4

Yes 52

University of

Washington

Yes 89 3 No

26 University of Virginia Yes 86 4 No 52 Yeshiva University Yes 72 4 No

27 Tufts University Yes 75 4 Yes 57

George Washington

University

Yes 100 4 Yes

27 Wake Forest University Yes 100 3 No 57

University of

Connecticut*

Yes 94 4 No

University of

Michigan— Ann Arbor

Yes 86 3 No 57

University of

Maryland— College

Park

Yes 92 3 Yes

TABLE 1: ADVANCED PLACEMENT CREDIT POLICIES OF TOP 102 UNIVERSITIES

PROGRESSIVE POLICY INSTITUTE

DIMINISHING CREDIT: HOW COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES RESTRICT THE USE OF ADVANCED PLACEMENT

RANK INSTITUTION

AWARD

AP CREDIT

% AP

TESTS

ACCEPTED

MINI.

SCORE

CAP AP

CREDITS RANK INSTITUTION

AWARD

AP CREDIT

% AP

TESTS

ACCEPTED

MINI.

SCORE

CAP AP

CREDITS

Worcester Polytechnic

Institute

Yes 69 4 No 82

Texas Christian

University

Yes 86 3 No

61 Clemson University Yes 100 3 No 82

University of

California— Santa

Cruz

Yes 100 3 No

Purdue University—

West Lafayette

Yes 100 3 No 82 University of Iowa Yes 100 3 No

Southern Methodist

University

Yes 100 4 No 86 Marquette University Yes 88 3 No

66 Fordham University Yes 97 4 Yes 86 University of Denver Yes 94 3 Yes

66 University of Pittsburgh Yes 86 3 No 86 University of Tulsa Yes 83 3 Yes

University of

Minnesota—

Twin Cities

Yes 69 3 No 89

Binghamton

University— SUNY

Yes 72 3 No

Texas A&M

University— College

Station

Yes 94 3 No 89

North Carolina State

University— Raleigh

Yes 92 3 No

70 Virginia Tech Yes 97 3 Yes 89

Stony Brook

University— SUNY

Yes 100 3 Yes

72 American University Yes 94 4 Yes 89

SUNY College of

Environmental Science

and Forestry

N/A N/A N/A N/A

72 Baylor University Yes 78 3 No 89

University of

Colorado— Boulder

Yes 97 3 No

Rutgers, The State

University of New

Jersey

Yes 97 4 No 89

University of San

Diego

Yes 100 3 No

75 Clark University Yes 94 4 No 89 University of Vermont Yes 100 3 No

Colorado School of

Mines

Yes 86 4 No 96 Florida State University Yes 100 3 No

Indiana University—

Bloomington

Yes 100 3 No 96 Saint Louis University Yes 66 3 No

Michigan State

University

Yes 94 3 No 96 University of Alabama Yes 100 3 Yes

Stevens Institute of

Technology

Yes 83 4 No 99 Drexel University Yes 100 4 No

75 University of Delaware Yes 94 3 No 99

Loyola University

Chicago

Yes 83 3 No

University of

Massachusetts—

Amherst

Yes 91 3 No 99

University at Buffalo—

SUNY

Yes 85 3 No

Miami University—

Oxford

Yes 100 3 No 102 Auburn Yes 92 3 No

# 3 for Physics

* 3 for Calculus

** 4 for Calculus

## 4 for Chinese

### 3 for Chemistry

***2 for Italian

****3 for French

PROGRESSIVE POLICY INSTITUTE

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PROGRESSIVE POLICY INSTITUTE

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and unique academic resources that characterize

a Dartmouth educational experience.”

While no

longer granting AP credit, however, Dartmouth

continues to let students with high AP scor

es opt out

of some introductory courses or get exemptions from

certain requirements. That of course acknowledges

that some incoming students have already mastered

college-level subjects, but denies them any credit for

their extra work in high school.

A more prosaic reason for denying students AP credit

could be boosting tuition revenue. It’s no secret that

U.S. colleges and universities depend increasingly on

tuition to keep their doors open. The Government

Accountability Ofﬁce (GAO) has found that both

public and private colleges and universities have come

to rely more heavily on tuition and fees as support

from state and local governments has declined. With

AP credits eating into their tuition revenue, schools

seem to be taking a different attitude toward the value

of course work students do in high school.

Whatever the rationale, denying students the ability

to use AP credit to graduate early is shortsighted.

RANK INSTITUTION

AWARD

AP CREDIT

% AP

TESTS

ACCEPTED

MINI.

SCORE

CAP AP

CREDITS RANK INSTITUTION

AWARD

AP CREDIT

% AP

TESTS

ACCEPTED

MINI.

SCORE

CAP AP

CREDITS

1 Williams College No 0 N/A N/A 25 Bryn Mawr College Yes 89 4 Yes

2 Amherst College No 0 N/A N/A 25 Colorado College Yes 94 3 Yes

3 Swarthmore College Yes 69 4 No 25 Kenyon College Yes 100 4 Yes

4 Bowdoin College Yes 55 4 Yes 32

College of the Holy

Cross

Yes 100 4 Yes

4 Middlebury College* Yes 78 4 Yes 32 University of Richmond Yes 92 4 Yes

4 Pomona College Yes 89 4 Yes 35

Mount Holyoke

College

Yes 100 4 Yes

4 Wellesley College** Yes 81 5 Yes 36 Pitzer College Yes 47 4 Yes

8 Carleton College Yes 89 3 Yes 37 Lafayette College Yes 81 4 No

Claremont McKenna

College

Yes 47 4 Yes 38 Skidmore College Yes N/A 4 Yes

9 Davidson College Yes 89 4 Yes 38 Union College* Yes 83 4 No

United States Naval

Academy

Yes 48 4 No 40 Dickinson College Yes 19 4 No

12 Haverford College Yes 97 5 Yes 40

Franklin and Marshall

College

Yes 100 4 Yes

12 Vassar College Yes 55 4 Yes 40 Whitman College Yes 78 4 Yes

14 Hamilton College+ Yes 64 4 43 Occidental College Yes 100 4 No

14 Harvey Mudd College No 0 N/A N/A 43 Trinity College Yes 86 4 Yes

14 Smith College Yes 78 4 Yes 45 Bard College Yes 100 5 No

Washington and Lee

University

Yes 89 4 Yes 45 Centre College Yes 78 4 No

14 Wesleyan University Yes 75 4 Yes 45

Soka University of

America

No 0 N/A N/A

19 Colby College No 0 N/A N/A 48 Connecticut College Yes 100 4 Yes

19 Colgate University* Yes 69 4 No 48 Gettysburg College Yes 100 4 No

19 Grinnell College* Yes 97 4 Yes 48

Sewanee— University

of the South

Yes 94 4 No

United States Military

Academy

No 0 N/A N/A 51 Depauw Universitgy Yes 81 4 Yes

23 Macalester College## Yes 69 4 Yes 51 Furman University* Yes 86 4 No

23 Oberlin College Yes 69 4 No 51 Rhodes College* Yes 86 4 Yes

25 Bates College Yes 89 4 Yes 51 St. Olaf College Yes 100 4 Yes

TABLE 2: ADVANCED PLACEMENT CREDIT POLICIES OF TOP 51 LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES

DIMINISHING CREDIT: HOW COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES RESTRICT THE USE OF ADVANCED PLACEMENT

PROGRESSIVE POLICY INSTITUTE

DIMINISHING CREDIT: HOW COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES RESTRICT THE USE OF ADVANCED PLACEMENT

For one thing, students who take AP exams are

less likely to drop out of college than those who

don’t.

According to a study by the College Board,

“when compared to their matched peers, research

consistently shows that students who score a 3 or

higher on an AP Exam typically: earn higher GPAs

in college; perform as well or better in subsequent

college courses in the discipline than non-AP

students who took the introductory class in college;

take more—not less—college course work in the

discipline; are more likely to graduate college within

ﬁve years; have higher graduation rates.”

Secondly, colleges and universities can make up

any revenue shortfall by increasing the number of

students they accept to match students who graduate

early. Thus for most schools, being more generous

with AP credit awards should be a revenue neutral

proposition.

EXPANDING AP AND THREE-YEAR DEGREES

An important ﬁrst step for moving towards a three-

year degree would be to expand credit for the

successful completion of AP coursework, and of

the International Baccalaureate (IB). To get there

would require schools to be willing to accept enough

credit to count for at least two semesters of college.

While obviously not every student would be able

to follow this path, rewarding those who do would

help students and families reduce the cost of tuition

and recognize an important academic achievement.

Furthermore, any student who would receive AP or

IB credit under an expanded approach could beneﬁt

both academically and ﬁnancially. To get there,

policymakers should consider the following:

1. Follow the lead of Texas. Congress should

enact a law requiring any public or private

college or university that enrolls students who

receive federal aid or subsidized loans grant

course credit for scores of 3 on any AP exam.

In addition, all 36 AP subject tests should be

accepted for credit. If colleges and universities

feel some AP courses are not sufﬁciently

rigorous, they should work with the College

Board to eliminate or improve the quality

of those courses, rather than limit student’s a

bility to earn credit.

2. Limit AP and IB credit caps. While no school should

be forced to hand out a degree to a student who

does not complete most of their coursework at

that institution, no student should be denied

the ability to graduate early. Caps on AP and

IB credits should be limited to one-year of

coursework, ensuring students who have enough

AP credit to graduate in three years (or three-

and-a-half) can.

3. Make AP exams free. The AP test costs $92 per

exam.

That number adds up the more tests you

take. No one should be prevented from getting AP

credit because of a fee. The next administration

should ﬁnd budgetary resources that would allow

anyone who has successfully completed an AP

course the ability to take the AP exam in that

subject area for free.

CONCLUSION

America is in the midst of a debate on how to make

college affordable for future generations of students.

One simple and inexpensive way to cut the cost of

college is to ensure institutions of higher education

don’t unfairly limit credit for AP and IB work. As

this study shows, thousands of Americans are

attending schools that don’t give them full credit for

their AP work. Changing that would be a huge

win for America’s students, as well as the nation’s

colleges and universities.

The Government Accountability

Ofﬁce has found that both public

and private colleges and universities

have come to rely more heavily on

tuition and fees as support from state

and local governments has declined

PROGRESSIVE POLICY INSTITUTE

DIMINISHING CREDIT: HOW COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES RESTRICT THE USE OF ADVANCED PLACEMENT

ENDNOTES

1. “A Look at the Shocking Student Loan Debt Statistics for 2016,” Student Loan Hero, accessed August 11, 2016 https://

studentloanhero.com/student-loan-debt-statistics-2016/

2. Paul Weinstein Jr., “Give Our Kids a Break: How Three-Year Degrees Can Cut the Cost of College. Progressive Policy

Institute, September 9, 2014. http://www.progressivepolicy.org/issues/economy/give-kids-break-three-year-degrees-can-

cut-cost-college/

3. According to Goldrick-Rab, very low food security includes multiple indications of disrupted eating patterns and

reduced food intake Twenty-two percent of the respondents indicated that they had cut the size of their meals or

skipped meals and were hungry because they didn’t have enough money for food.

4. “Clinton’s College Affordability Proposal, Explained,” Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget, October 13, 2015.

http://www.crfb.org/blogs/clintons-college-affordability-proposal-explained

5. Paul Weinstein Jr., “Give Our Kids a Break: How Three-Year Degrees Can Cut the Cost of College, Progressive Policy

Institute, September 9, 2014, http://www.progressivepolicy.org/issues/economy/give-kids-break-three-year-degrees-can-

cut-cost-college/

6. Ibid

7. Sue Shellenbarger, “Universities With Three-Year Bachelor’s Degree Programs,” Wall Street Journal, May 26, 2010.

http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703341904575266352925815936

8. A Brief History of the Advanced Placement Program, The College Board, Site Accessed August 11, 2016 http://www.

collegeboard.com/prod_downloads/about/news_info/ap/ap_history_english.pdf

9. “The 10th Annual AP Report To The Nation” The College Board, 2014. https://research.collegeboard.org/programs/ap/

data/nation/2014

10. “Best Colleges National Universities Rankings” and “Best Colleges Liberal Arts Colleges Rankings,” U.S. News & World

Report, 2014, http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges

11. For the purposes of this study, the AP Capstone Courses (Research and Seminar) were not included.

12. http://education.seattlepi.com/grade-pass-ap-exam-3070.html

13. A total of 6 schools have a minimum score of 5. This includes two schools that allow a score of 4 in one subject area.

14. Matthew Watkins, “Law Allows More College Credits for High Schoolers,” Texas Tribune June 19, 2015. https://www.

texastribune.org/2015/06/19/new-law-could-make-it-easier-high-schools-get-ap-c/

15. As Ranked By UU.S. News & World Report. Data included in this table was collected from the College Board as well as

individual University catalogs and handbooks. The use of U.S. News & World Report rankings does not constitute an

endorsement of those rankings.

16. As Ranked By U.S. News & World Report. Data included in this table was collected from the College Board as well as

individual University catalogs and handbooks. The use of U.S. News & World Report rankings does not constitute an

endorsement of those rankings.“

17. Ofﬁce of Communications, “Dartmouth Issues Statement Clarifying Advanced Placement Decision” Dartmouth News,

February 8, 2013. https://news.dartmouth.edu/news/2013/02/dartmouth-issues-statement-clarifying-advanced-

placement-decision

18. The 10th Annual AP Report To The Nation” The College Board, 2014. https://research.collegeboard.org/programs/ap/

data/nation/2014

19. Ibid

20. Exam Fee and Reductions: 2016, The College Board. http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/public/exam/

calendar/190165.html

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